Valorizing the Input and Output Waste Streams from Three PtX Case Studies in Denmark—Adopting a Symbiotic Approach
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Danish PtX Projects under Development and in the Pipeline
1.2. Problem Field
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Data Retrieval
2.1.1. Exploratory Case Study
2.1.2. Case Study Design
2.1.3. Literature Study
2.2. Theoretical Outline
2.2.1. Symbiotic Approach
2.2.2. Systemic Elements Connected to PtX Plants
- (a)
- Making e-fuel via a synthetic process, such as methanol, which would require an input of carbon (CO2) and electricity from the energy system if not provided by local RES sources. The use of biogenetic CO2 in this process could be supplied by upgrading the existing facilities (extraction of CO2 from biogas to produce pure methane) connected to Danish biogas plants, or possibly from decentralized CHP plants fueled by biomass, such as residual straw or wood chips. The co-location of the PtX plant near such facilities would, hence, be beneficial. The use of biogenetic CO2 is important from a symbiotic perspective, as in almost all cases, it would otherwise simply be emitted to the atmosphere from the biogas plants when upgrading their facilities. Currently, 675,000 t of biogenetic CO2 are emitted annually from these energy plants [42], and thus not being valorized while also causing environmental issues, including contributing to global warming. Capturing and valorizing this output as a new input to the electrolysis process is therefore important, and carbon capture and utilization (CCU) could thus minimize this current wastage of biogenetic CO2, which could be facilitated within the PtX plant via a classical “inter-firm collaboration”.
- (b)
- Pressurizing hydrogen to make it suitable as an energy carrier for transportation purposes, but this is an energy-intensive technique and will, in many cases, require an input of energy from the energy system to fuel high-pressure equipment unless energy is supplied from local RES sources. This process does not require carbon input.
- (c)
- Storing hydrogen and eventually utilizing it for the generation of electricity, e.g., via re-electrification. In this way, it is possible to produce an output (electricity on demand) that could assist in stabilizing the fluctuating RES production.
- (d)
- Injecting hydrogen directly into the gasnet [43]. Up to a 15% (potentially 20% in newer gas pipes) mixture of hydrogen and gas (methane) could be supplied and hence “stored” in an already established gasnet [44]. The stored energy within the gasnet could then later be utilized for, e.g., electricity and heat production or industrial usage, thereby helping stabilize the fluctuating energy supply from RES.
- (e)
- Methanation, where hydrogen, for example, is converted to additional biogas via an in situ injection of electrolysis-produced hydrogen directly into the biogas’ reactor tank [17]. This was investigated by ref. [45], which reported that up to 80% of the hydrogen was converted to methane, and between 40–60% of the biogas’ content of CO2 was removed. Alternatively, new ex situ co-located technology—like a biological methanation facility—could be established separately, where biogenetic CO2 from an upgrading facility could be utilized and combined with hydrogen from the PtX plant in the following process [17,22]. According to ref. [46], such a separate (ex situ) methanation plant could typically increase the biogas yield by up to 42%.
2.2.3. Valorizing Waste Streams and Energy System Integration
- Renewable Energy Sources (RES): Where does the electricity come from?
- Carbon dioxide: Does the plant rely on CO2 from biogenetic or non-biogenetic sources?
- Water: Where does the water for the electrolysis processes come from?
- Waste heat: Is the surplus heat being utilized?
- Oxygen: Does pure oxygen have any usage?
- Energy system integration: Is the layout/design stabilizing the fluctuating RES within the energy system?
3. Results
3.1. Case Presentation
3.1.1. Case Study 1: EnergyLab Skive and PtX Plant (the Energy Hub Case, Figure 2)
3.1.2. Case 2: Vinkel Bioenergy and PtX Plant (‘the Rural Case’, Figure 3)
3.1.3. Case 3: DIN Forsyning and PtX Plant (‘the City Case’, Figure 4)
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Questionnaire for Interviews
- When was the PtX plant erected/planned to be erected?
- What was the motivation for implementing the technology?
- What types of energy carriers are produced?
- Are there any public grants or the like connected to the technology deployment?
- Where do the renewable energy sources (RES) come from? Do you have your own supply of RES from wind turbines or solar PV? Others?
- From where does the water for the electrolysis processes come from? Rinsed wastewater or groundwater resources? Others?
- Does the PtX plant rely on CO2 from biogenetic or non-biogenetic sources?
- How is waste heat being utilized, if at all? And, is this important?
- Pure oxygen outputs: Does the oxygen have any usage? Is this important?
- How does the layout/design of the PtX plant assist in stabilizing the fluctuating RES within the existing energy system?
- What are the future plans in relation to the PtX plant? To expand the production?
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Lybæk, R.; Kjær, T. Valorizing the Input and Output Waste Streams from Three PtX Case Studies in Denmark—Adopting a Symbiotic Approach. Waste 2023, 1, 884-900. https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1040051
Lybæk R, Kjær T. Valorizing the Input and Output Waste Streams from Three PtX Case Studies in Denmark—Adopting a Symbiotic Approach. Waste. 2023; 1(4):884-900. https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1040051
Chicago/Turabian StyleLybæk, Rikke, and Tyge Kjær. 2023. "Valorizing the Input and Output Waste Streams from Three PtX Case Studies in Denmark—Adopting a Symbiotic Approach" Waste 1, no. 4: 884-900. https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1040051