Silicon Radiation Detector Technologies: From Planar to 3D
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Basic Principles and Requirements
- Very low leakage currents. Besides affecting power dissipation, the leakage current plays a critical role in the detector noise, so it should be minimized. A value < 1 nA/cm2 is normally assumed as a target. The leakage current is mainly caused by thermal generation in the depleted bulk, so the carrier lifetimes should be high enough, calling for high-purity material and ultra-clean processing, as well as for an optimized layout, often including guard rings [5].
- Large breakdown voltage. In certain cases, detectors require extremely high voltage to operate effectively. This may be due to factors such as thick substrates, the necessity to achieve high electric fields for velocity saturation, or radiation damage. Specifications often require the breakdown voltage to exceed several hundreds of volts. The use of guard rings is also useful in this respect [6].
- Radiation hardness. This is especially the case of detectors used in HEP experiments at particle colliders, where the fluences can be as large as ~1016 1-MeV equivalent neutrons per square cm (neq/cm2). Displacement damage to the silicon lattice is here the main issue, with three main consequences [7]: (i) increase in leakage current (linear with fluence); (ii) change in the effective space-charge concentration, leading to an increase in depletion voltage at large fluences; (iii) charge carrier trapping, which represents the factor ultimately limiting the detector performance at fluences beyond~1015 neq/cm2. In addition, ionization damage effects [8] are caused by charged particles but also by high-energy photons (X- and γ-rays), with total ionizing doses that can largely exceed 1 Grad in applications at particle colliders and at Free Electron Laser facilities [9]. The consequences are the build-up of positive charge in the oxides and of interface states, which affect the isolation between n+ regions, the parasitic capacitance between adjacent regions (with impact on noise), the electric fields at the surface (with impact on breakdown voltage) and surface generation/recombination (with impact on leakage current and charge collection in case radiation is absorbed near the surface).
- In silicon detectors, the minimum feature sizes are not too small (~micrometers). Proximity lithography is mainly used, sometimes with double-side alignment. The overall device dimensions can be very large (up to tens of square centimeters) and the specifications often require the total number of defects to be very small, so that yield is certainly a major concern in detector fabrication.
3. Fabrication Technologies
3.1. Starting Material
- Neutron-transmutation-doped (NTD) substrates [11] are obtained from the irradiation of high-purity p-type silicon with fast neutrons, yielding n-type material with high-resistivity up to 5 kΩ cm. NTD wafers feature the lowest non-uniformities in the doping concentration, down to 5%, which is important for some types of detectors (e.g., drift detectors).
- Czochralski (CZ), Magnetic Czochralski (MCZ) and epitaxial wafers have also been recently used for the fabrication of silicon detectors in HEP applications. In fact, these types of substrates have a high concentration of oxygen, in the range of 1017–1018 cm−3, which was found to be beneficial in terms of radiation hardness of the detectors, since it lowers the increase in the effective space charge concentration at high radiation fluences, thus reducing the depletion voltage [12].
3.2. Planar Technology
3.2.1. Common Detector Types
3.2.2. Technological Aspects
- -
- Only one thermal oxidation step is initially performed at high temperature (~1000 °C) to passivate the silicon surface, creating an effective protection against contamination and mechanical damage and reducing the interface states that are responsible for surface leakage currents. Further oxide layers are then obtained by chemical vapor deposition (CVD), which can be performed at lower temperatures; as an example, the decomposition of the vapor produced from a liquid source, tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS), is used in a low-pressure (LP) CVD system at about 800 °C (). If a silicon dioxide film is required over aluminum metallization (e.g., for final passivation), the deposition has to be performed at a temperature below the silicon–aluminum eutectic point (577 °C). For this purpose, low-temperature oxides (LTOs) can be deposited from the reaction between silane and oxygen at temperatures between 300 and 500 °C in an LPCVD system (). As an alternative, oxide layers can also be deposited by plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD) at a typical temperature of 300 °C (. CVD reactions at relatively low temperatures (from ~600 to ~800 °C) are also used for the deposition of poly-Si and silicon nitride;
- -
- the doping of junctions and ohmic contacts is preferably performed by ion implantation, so as to keep the temperature low. The annealing step is also performed at a low temperature (600–700 °C), which is enough for the implant damage recovery, although it does not allow for a full electrical activation of the dopant atoms.
3.2.3. Integrated Transistors
3.2.4. Avalanche-Based Detectors
3.3. 3D Technology
- (i)
- The full depletion voltage is much lower: before irradiation, a 3D detector can be efficiently operated at a bias of just a few Volts, and even after irradiation up to very large fluences of the order of ~1016 neq/cm2, the required bias voltage is still limited to ~150 V. Since the leakage current after irradiation can become very large, the related reduction in the power dissipation is very important;
- (ii)
- The time response is much faster: the total signal duration is typically below 1 ns, with rise times below 100 ps, leading to outstanding results in the timing resolution (a few tens of ps);
- (iii)
- Charge-trapping effects, which represent the most important limitation to the signal efficiency after large irradiation fluences, can be strongly attenuated, making 3D detectors the most radiation-hard silicon detectors;
- (iv)
- The extension of the dead region at the detector periphery, which in planar detectors is typically a few hundreds of micrometers, can be minimized to just a few μm by using deep trench terminations, the so-called “active edges”;
- (v)
- Three-dimensional structures with high aspect-ratio cavities filled by proper converter materials (e.g., 6LiF or 10B) can be used for thermal neutron detection and imaging with high efficiency, up to ~50%, owing to the increased surface area of the silicon sensors where the neutron converter material is deposited [81,82,83,84];
- (vi)
- Very small detection volumes can be accurately defined in 3D structures, as requested for microdosimetry in synchrotron and particle therapy and space radiation protection [85].
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dalla Betta, G.-F.; Ye, J. Silicon Radiation Detector Technologies: From Planar to 3D. Chips 2023, 2, 83-101. https://doi.org/10.3390/chips2020006
Dalla Betta G-F, Ye J. Silicon Radiation Detector Technologies: From Planar to 3D. Chips. 2023; 2(2):83-101. https://doi.org/10.3390/chips2020006
Chicago/Turabian StyleDalla Betta, Gian-Franco, and Jixing Ye. 2023. "Silicon Radiation Detector Technologies: From Planar to 3D" Chips 2, no. 2: 83-101. https://doi.org/10.3390/chips2020006