Cooking Skills in Health Professionals: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Cooking skills (CSs) encompass both physical and behavioral abilities, and their transmission has evolved due to social changes and the rise of fast food as a convenient but unhealthy option. Studies show that patients are more likely to follow dietary plans when the advice includes healthy, simple, and practical cooking tips. Intervention programs supporting this approach have been shown to improve CSs and encourage balanced diets in the community. CSs of health professionals, and their ability to teach and impart, can thus play a key role in these strategies. This systematic review aimed to identify studies that have already discussed CSs among health professionals. PRISMA guidelines were followed, and Scielo, Pubmed, Scoppus, and Web of Science databases were searched in January 2024. From the identified 527 potentially relevant studies, 9 met the inclusion criteria. The studies analyzed address topics such as the suitability of CS as a professional competency, professionals’ viewpoints regarding culinary aptitude, integrating CSs into training, and assessment of their impact on enhancing professionals’ competencies. Results suggest that developing CSs can improve professionals’ confidence, potentially benefiting community eating behaviors. Despite available validated tools, a clearer CS definition is needed for consistent evaluation and a better understanding of its role among health professionals.

1. Introduction

Cooking skills (CSs) at home involve physical skills, knowledge, and behavioral skills, combining the person who cooks and their environment, practical experience, adaptation to meet family preferences, planning for buying and cooking food, knowledge of food safety, and knowing how to combine flavors and textures [1,2].

Due to changes in the economy and society, such as the Industrial Revolution and women working outside the home, the transmission of CSs has been restructured over time. Cooking was once associated with women’s domestic life, but social movements in the 20th century aimed to free them from these tasks [3]. Men are more involved in household chores and cooking nowadays, and the traditional transmission of cooking skills from mother to children is being lost [1,3,4].

An article, in 1996, expressed concern among nutrition researchers and educators at the time, regarding cooking, about the decline of CSs, with fewer young people being educated on these. At that time, the expansion of the ultra-processed food market across Europe was already noticeable, in which fast food was increasingly dominating household diets [5].

Stitt (1996) modified a statement previously made by doctors and nutritionists that “more people are killing themselves with a fork and spoon than by any other means”, addressing that “they are actually killing themselves with can openers and microwave” [5]. Caraher (1999) found that, unfortunately, fast food is often the easiest solution for those who lack CSs and do not have the time or interest in learning to cook [3].

Cooking shows can educate viewers by showing food preparation and cooking techniques, not just entertainment, as well as cooking books and magazines. Consumers may struggle to choose and consume healthy foods due to a lack of CSs, which can result in an inferior product even with proper equipment and ingredients [1,4,6].

Nutrition intervention programs traditionally aim to change attitudes and behaviors, for example, but it is not enough to only have knowledge about nutrition and healthy habits to pursue such intentions. It is also crucial to have practical skills in food preparation. Nutrition professionals’ recommendations on healthier food preparation are useless without consumers having the necessary skills.

Beyond that, the new generations of health professionals were also people who had modified and restructured lifestyles, which might influence not only their dietary habits but also their ability to pass on food and nutrition concealing to patients and the community [1,3]. Furthermore, some previous studies on barriers and facilitators for dietary change have shown that patients are more likely to adhere to dietary plans when the guidance is simple, practical, and includes healthy food choices, cooking methods, and tips that address everyday lifestyle challenges. Patients also found it helpful when the advice included easy ways to cook without compromising taste. Although health professionals are expected to convey nutritional advice for disease management, they often struggle to do so effectively because of limited skills, low confidence, and time resources [7,8].

In this sense, health professionals’ improved nutrition education and CSs can be linked to their ability to provide effective counseling to patients. Health professionals with improved CSs are better able to educate and empower patients and the community to adopt healthy eating practices, with practical demonstrations, adapted recipes, and personalized guidance [1,4,6].

Cooking programs, such as Cooking Camp [4], Cook Like a Chef [9], and others [10,11], can enhance culinary engagement. These programs improve CSs and boost confidence in home food preparation [4,6,9]. Moreover, nutritional education programs effectively prevent chronic non-communicable diseases and involve participants, their families, and communities [12,13,14]. Individuals who have CSs are more likely to consume a balanced diet and less likely to rely on ultra-processed foods [4,6,9,15]. Culinary skills programs are important, but studies have focused less on the skills that healthcare professionals and students have for teaching or imparting them [16,17]. Health professionals who acquire CSs have the chance to bridge their scientific knowledge with people’s lives and promote healthy eating. Health courses should review their pedagogical proposals to train qualified professionals who improve food quality and ensure the right to adequate food [18].

The general objective of the present study was to perform a systematic review to identify studies that have already discussed cooking skills in health professionals, particularly in diet and nutrition professionals. It was also intended to give focus on which tools have been used to evaluate health professionals in such skills.

2. Methods

The protocol of this systematic review was registered on the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) database [19] (registration number CRD42023492997). A systematic review, using the checklist PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) [20], was conducted.

This literature review encompasses articles published up to 18 January 2024, in databases such as Scielo, Pubmed, Scoppus, and Web of Science. Additionally, the references within the located articles were annexed to ensure the inclusion of any potentially overlooked studies.

The search terms included in all databases were as follows: (“cooking skills” or “learning” or “food preparation” or “teaching styles” or “food literacy” or “cooking abilities” or “culinary inheritance” or “validation studies”) and “health professionals”.

2.1. Study Selection

This review encompassed articles meeting the following criteria: (1) addressing cooking skills in health professionals; (2) providing descriptions of the study and assessment tools, whether original or adapted. No restrictions were applied based on publication year, country of origin, or language. Articles that introduced original instruments or reported on cross-cultural adaptations of tools designed to measure cooking skills in children and adolescents, or those whose instruments were inaccessible (either within the article or upon request to the authors), were excluded. The exclusion criterion for studies without available assessment instruments was intended to ensure transparency and consistency in data analysis.

Two authors independently screened citation abstracts and titles to identify potentially relevant studies. Full-text articles were obtained and reviewed for further assessment in accordance with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Any uncertainties or disagreements between the reviewers concerning article inclusion or exclusion were resolved by a third reviewer. In cases where the full text or the assessment instrument was unavailable, contact with the corresponding authors via email or other means, such as ResearchGate [21], was attempted.

2.2. Data Extraction and Analysis

Two authors independently conducted data extraction using a preformatted spreadsheet within EndNote. In cases of disagreements or uncertainties during this process, a third reviewer intervened to compare the data extracted by the two reviewers. If discrepancies arose, the third reviewer facilitated a discussion between the two authors to clarify their interpretations. If an agreement could not be reached by the two reviewers, the third reviewer would provide their perspective.

The information extracted encompassed descriptive study details, including the year of publication, country of origin, the purposes under study, profession of the participants, sample size, type of analyses, and main results.

3. Results

3.1. Search Results (Figure 1)

The electronic search identified (Figure 1) 527 potentially relevant studies, and after removing duplicate articles, 452 articles remained for analysis. Following the initial screening based on titles and abstracts, 342 articles were deemed irrelevant due to their lack of significance to human health (e.g., veterinary medicine), association with alternative health topics (e.g., enzymes, vaccines), or duplication, resulting in 110 articles eligible for subsequent analysis. Within this subset, 29 articles pertained to nutritional literacy concepts, family dynamics, children, or adolescents, but did not include cooking skills in particular, while 55 articles focused on adult populations but did not specifically address health professionals.

The distinction between “healthcare professionals” and “adult populations” was made based on the explicit description of the participants’ profiles in the articles. Only studies whose adult participants clearly qualified as professionals trained in the healthcare field or students enrolled in the healthcare field were included. Of the articles concerning health professionals, two were inaccessible in full, prompting requests from the authors. Even though one was still inaccessible in full, it was excluded from the research. Subsequently, nine articles meeting the study’s criteria were selected for further detailed evaluation.

Figure 1. PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) flow chart of the results. Cooking Skills in Health Professionals: A Systematic Review, 2024.

Figure 1. PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) flow chart of the results. Cooking Skills in Health Professionals: A Systematic Review, 2024.

3.2. Characteristics of the Studies (Table 1)

Most of the articles (six) were studies carried out in the United States of America [22,23,24,25,26,27], 2 in Australia [28,29], and one in Israel [30]. All of them were published in English and most of the articles in this review were from the last two years, with the publication period for all of them being from 2018 to 2023.

The articles included had different purposes while concurrently addressing analogous thematic threads, thereby warranting subdivision into the following categories: (1) deliberations regarding the suitability of culinary skills as a professional competency, which refers to studies that discuss, in a more conceptual or critical manner, whether culinary skills should be considered an integral part of professional competencies in healthcare; (2) exploration of health professionals’ viewpoints regarding culinary aptitude, which refers to studies that investigate how professionals themselves perceive their culinary skills; (3) evaluation of programmatic outcomes among healthcare personnel; and (4) assessment of the effects of enhanced food-related competencies among professionals (Table 1).

All investigations provided the outline of the studies, always accompanied by a conceptual structure or a convincing foundation to elucidate the definition of the instruments’ respective constructs. There was minimal variation in the phenomena under examination, centering on nutrition education initiatives, culinary training programs, and discourse pertaining to culinary competencies.

Among the participants in each article analyzed, the most recurrent were doctors (students or residents) (n = 4), followed by other health professionals (n = 3) and dietitians (n = 2). The number of participants varied greatly among the articles analyzed, and depending on the type of methodology applied. For example, Aboueid (2019), using structured interviews, had a smaller number of participants, and Lang (2019), which was a pilot study and developed cooking workshops, also had a smaller sample [22,28].

Many of the articles described the evaluation of specific programs, with the aim of determining the effectiveness of health and nutrition interventions. Consequently, a recurring aspect in these studies entailed quantitative analyses, encompassing pre- and post-intervention assessments, which could comprise various modalities such as courses (n = 3), culinary skills training (n = 3), culinary workshop (n = 1), or seminars (n = 1).

Lang (2019) conducted a pilot study and other studies built on pilot studies to develop the intervention and then further analyze [22]. Aboueid (2019), D’Adamo (2022), and Brennan (2023) incorporated qualitative analysis methodologies within their research findings [23,25,28].

Regarding outcomes, the studies underscore enhancements in comprehension of nutritional principles, CSs, and counseling techniques; increasing the confidence of healthcare professionals in providing nutrition and healthy lifestyle advice; changes in participants’ dietary behaviors; and the impact of interventions on participants’ health status, thereby extending influence on the wider community.

Table 1. Summary of the characteristics of the included articles. Cooking Skills in Health Professionals: A Systematic Review, 2024.

Title	Authors	Year	Country	Purposes Under Study	Participants	Sample Size	Type of Analysis	Main Results
Practice What You Teach Public Health Nurses Promoting Healthy Lifestyles (PHeeL-PHiNe): Program Evaluation [30]	R. Hasson, A. H. Stark, N. Constantini, R. Polak, G. Verbov, N. Edelstein, et al.	2018	Israel	Health Education Program	Public health nurses	114 participants in pre- and post-questionnaires and 104 follow-ups	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies)	The PHeeL-PHiNe program was effective in increasing nurses’ knowledge and skills in nutrition. Nurses reported positive changes in their practices.
Dietitians’ Perspectives on Patient Barriers and Enablers to Weight Management: An Application of the Social-Ecological Model [28]	S. Aboueid, C. Pouliot, T. Nur, I. Bourgeault e I. Giroux	2019	Australia	Barriers and facilitators to weight control in patients	Dietitians	14 participants	Qualitative: semi-structured interviews	Dietitians identified several barriers and facilitators to patient weight control. Results can inform interventions to improve weight control.
Community Culinary Workshops as a Nutrition Curriculum in a Preventive Medicine Residency Program [22]	R. D. Lang, M. C. Jennings, C. Lam, H. C. Yeh, C. Zhu e T. Kumra	2019	USA	Nutrition education for preventive medicine residents	Residents in preventive medicine	11 participants in initial workshop and 9 in the final workshop	Pilot study	The culinary workshops were well-received by residents. Residents reported an increase in culinary knowledge and skills.
Culinary Medicine Training in Core Medical School Curriculum Improved Medical Student Nutrition Knowledge and Confidence in Providing Nutrition Counseling [23]	C. R. D’Adamo, K. Workman, C. Barnabic, N. Retener, B. Siaton, G. Piedrahita, et al.	2022	USA	Cooking Training for medical students	First-year medical students	119 participants	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies) Qualitative: open-ended survey questions	Increased students’ knowledge about nutrition. More confidence in students to provide nutritional advice.
Training of Registered Dietitian Nutritionists to Improve Culinary Skills and Food Literacy [24]	J. W. McWhorter, D. M. LaRue, M. Almohamad, M. P. Danho, S. Misra, K. C. Tseng, et al.	2022	USA	Cooking Training for Dietitians	Dietitians	25 participants	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies)	Culinary training improved dietitians’ culinary skills and food literacy. Culinary-trained dietitians reported greater confidence in providing culinary advice.
Facilitators and Barriers to Providing Culinary Nutrition, Culinary Medicine and Behaviour Change Support: An Online Cross-Sectional Survey of Australian Health and Education Professionals [29]	R. C. Asher, T. Bucher, V. A. Shrewsbury, E. D. Clarke, J. Herbert, S. Roberts, et al.	2023	Australia	Barriers and facilitators to providing culinary nutrition	Health professionals and education professionals (cooking and/or nutrition)	277 participants	Quantitative: cross-sectional online survey	Participants identified several barriers and facilitators to providing culinary nutrition. Results can inform the development of training programs.
Impact of Culinary Medicine Course on Confidence and Competence in Diet and Lifestyle Counseling, Interprofessional Communication, and Health Behaviors and Advocacy [25]	B. R. Brennan, K. A. Beals, R. D. Burns, C. J. Chow, A. B. Locke, M. P. Petzold, et al.	2023	USA	Culinary Medicine Education	Doctors and medical students	84 participants	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies) Qualitative: open-ended survey questions	The culinary medicine course increased participants’ confidence and competence. Participants reported positive changes in their practices.
Eat to Treat: The Methods and Assessments of a Culinary Medicine Seminar for Future Physicians and Practicing Clinicians [26]	K. Donovan, O. W. Thomas, T. Sweeney, T. J. Ryan, S. Kytomaa, M. Zhao, et al.	2023	USA	Culinary Medicine Education	Medical students	39 participants	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies)	Increased knowledge in culinary medicine and self-perception of skills in culinary medicine. Positive change in attitudes towards culinary medicine.
Experiential Culinary, Nutrition and Food Systems Education Improves Knowledge and Confidence in Future Health Professionals [27]	K. Shafto, N. Vandenburgh, Q. Wang and J. Breen	2023	USA	Effectiveness of a culinary education course	Health professionals	65 participants	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies)	Increased cooking knowledge and self-perception of cooking skills. Reports of positive and valuable experience on the course and recognition of the importance of cooking, nutrition and food systems for individual and population health.

Table 1. Summary of the characteristics of the included articles. Cooking Skills in Health Professionals: A Systematic Review, 2024.

Title	Authors	Year	Country	Purposes Under Study	Participants	Sample Size	Type of Analysis	Main Results
Practice What You Teach Public Health Nurses Promoting Healthy Lifestyles (PHeeL-PHiNe): Program Evaluation [30]	R. Hasson, A. H. Stark, N. Constantini, R. Polak, G. Verbov, N. Edelstein, et al.	2018	Israel	Health Education Program	Public health nurses	114 participants in pre- and post-questionnaires and 104 follow-ups	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies)	The PHeeL-PHiNe program was effective in increasing nurses’ knowledge and skills in nutrition. Nurses reported positive changes in their practices.
Dietitians’ Perspectives on Patient Barriers and Enablers to Weight Management: An Application of the Social-Ecological Model [28]	S. Aboueid, C. Pouliot, T. Nur, I. Bourgeault e I. Giroux	2019	Australia	Barriers and facilitators to weight control in patients	Dietitians	14 participants	Qualitative: semi-structured interviews	Dietitians identified several barriers and facilitators to patient weight control. Results can inform interventions to improve weight control.
Community Culinary Workshops as a Nutrition Curriculum in a Preventive Medicine Residency Program [22]	R. D. Lang, M. C. Jennings, C. Lam, H. C. Yeh, C. Zhu e T. Kumra	2019	USA	Nutrition education for preventive medicine residents	Residents in preventive medicine	11 participants in initial workshop and 9 in the final workshop	Pilot study	The culinary workshops were well-received by residents. Residents reported an increase in culinary knowledge and skills.
Culinary Medicine Training in Core Medical School Curriculum Improved Medical Student Nutrition Knowledge and Confidence in Providing Nutrition Counseling [23]	C. R. D’Adamo, K. Workman, C. Barnabic, N. Retener, B. Siaton, G. Piedrahita, et al.	2022	USA	Cooking Training for medical students	First-year medical students	119 participants	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies) Qualitative: open-ended survey questions	Increased students’ knowledge about nutrition. More confidence in students to provide nutritional advice.
Training of Registered Dietitian Nutritionists to Improve Culinary Skills and Food Literacy [24]	J. W. McWhorter, D. M. LaRue, M. Almohamad, M. P. Danho, S. Misra, K. C. Tseng, et al.	2022	USA	Cooking Training for Dietitians	Dietitians	25 participants	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies)	Culinary training improved dietitians’ culinary skills and food literacy. Culinary-trained dietitians reported greater confidence in providing culinary advice.
Facilitators and Barriers to Providing Culinary Nutrition, Culinary Medicine and Behaviour Change Support: An Online Cross-Sectional Survey of Australian Health and Education Professionals [29]	R. C. Asher, T. Bucher, V. A. Shrewsbury, E. D. Clarke, J. Herbert, S. Roberts, et al.	2023	Australia	Barriers and facilitators to providing culinary nutrition	Health professionals and education professionals (cooking and/or nutrition)	277 participants	Quantitative: cross-sectional online survey	Participants identified several barriers and facilitators to providing culinary nutrition. Results can inform the development of training programs.
Impact of Culinary Medicine Course on Confidence and Competence in Diet and Lifestyle Counseling, Interprofessional Communication, and Health Behaviors and Advocacy [25]	B. R. Brennan, K. A. Beals, R. D. Burns, C. J. Chow, A. B. Locke, M. P. Petzold, et al.	2023	USA	Culinary Medicine Education	Doctors and medical students	84 participants	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies) Qualitative: open-ended survey questions	The culinary medicine course increased participants’ confidence and competence. Participants reported positive changes in their practices.
Eat to Treat: The Methods and Assessments of a Culinary Medicine Seminar for Future Physicians and Practicing Clinicians [26]	K. Donovan, O. W. Thomas, T. Sweeney, T. J. Ryan, S. Kytomaa, M. Zhao, et al.	2023	USA	Culinary Medicine Education	Medical students	39 participants	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies)	Increased knowledge in culinary medicine and self-perception of skills in culinary medicine. Positive change in attitudes towards culinary medicine.
Experiential Culinary, Nutrition and Food Systems Education Improves Knowledge and Confidence in Future Health Professionals [27]	K. Shafto, N. Vandenburgh, Q. Wang and J. Breen	2023	USA	Effectiveness of a culinary education course	Health professionals	65 participants	Quantitative: experimental (pre- and post-test studies)	Increased cooking knowledge and self-perception of cooking skills. Reports of positive and valuable experience on the course and recognition of the importance of cooking, nutrition and food systems for individual and population health.

3.3. Characteristics of the Instruments (Table 2)

The main characteristics of each instrument, including type, content, and format, are summarized in Table 2. The analyzed articles, although different in the type of instrument used (quantitative and/or qualitative), shared the goal of assessing outcomes related to cooking skills, nutritional knowledge, professional confidence, and program evaluation. Most studies used pre- and post-intervention assessments (n = 7), often using self-administered questionnaires to assess changes in knowledge, attitudes, and practices. Some of the quantitative questionnaires explicitly reported using electronic formats (n = 5), while others did not include the mode of application; all used Likert-type scales and were validated. Studies with a qualitative approach, in turn, used tools such as semi-structured interviews and open-ended questions.

In Hasson’s study (2018), a pilot questionnaire was utilized, initially refined for readability and ease of administration. Two pilot courses were conducted to develop the program and validate the questionnaire, followed by six sequential courses. These courses integrated interactive lectures, workshops on motivating behavioral changes, balanced eating, and physical activity. Participants engaged in group cooking and exercise sessions to enhance self-efficacy, along with receiving step-counting devices. Counseling materials like posters and healthy recipes were provided, and participants were incentivized to conduct workshops and counseling sessions using acquired skills and materials. The questionnaires, administered before and after the course, assessed knowledge, attitude, and behavior regarding nutrition and physical activity, while also capturing demographic data such as age, years of experience, gender, and birthplace [30].

Aboueid’s research (2019) involved a pilot project with three Registered Dietitians to test an interview protocol. Feedback from the pilot led to refinements in the protocol, incorporating more probing questions to better address research objectives. The interview protocol aimed to explore dietitians’ perspectives on patients’ barriers and facilitators to weight control. Individual interviews, recorded for literal transcription, covered themes like lack of knowledge, emotional eating, and the obesogenic food environment [28].

Lang’s study (2019) developed culinary medicine workshops for preventive medicine for a 2-year cohort of general preventive medicine residents. Through participatory processes, including community planning and literature review, curriculum learning objectives were established. Workshops covered topics such as cooking for health, essential kitchen ingredients, reading recipes and food labels, and purchasing healthy foods affordably. Also, one of the workshops concentrated on developing skills to read recipes. At the end of each workshop, to assess the impact of the intervention, quantitative and qualitative questionnaires were used to measure changes in participants’ knowledge, attitudes, and confidence related to culinary practices [22].

D’Adamo’s pilot test (2022), in 2018–2019, had two sessions of 3 h in length. The training provided evidence-based nutrition instruction and involved group cooking of recipes discussed in the lecture. Participants shared meals and discussed the potential application of the training to patient care and personal self-care. Based on pilot feedback, a single 3-hour training session was offered to first-year medical students in the 2019–2020 academic year, including a 1-hour lecture on basic human nutrition concepts. Pre- and post-training quantitative questionnaires, along with open-ended qualitative questions, were administered. These questionnaires assessed various aspects, including nutrition knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Post-training assessment included two additional survey questions exploring the applicability of culinary medicine training to patient care and self-care, allowing respondents to provide detailed feedback [23].

McWhorter (2022) employed a pre-post study design to assess the pilot testing of a train-the-trainer curriculum for Registered Dietitian/Nutritionists within a diverse population from September 2019 to January 2020. This curriculum, spanning six sessions and offering 18 h of continuing professional education, encompassed various components such as hands-on culinary medicine education, training in food insecurity, cultural humility, group facilitation, counseling, and communication strategies. The evaluation utilized pre- and post-training electronic questionnaires employing Likert scales, alongside provisions for open-ended feedback at each workshop session [24].

Asher’s survey (2023) featured a combination of closed quantitative data questions and one open-ended inquiry, requiring approximately 20 min for completion. Prior to its implementation, the questionnaire underwent pre-testing with five practicing health and education professionals to ensure content validity and usability. Feedback from this pre-test prompted revisions to the wording of certain questions. The survey covered various domains, including confidence in CS, nutrition knowledge, diet quality, meal planning, typical practices related to cooking provision, nutrition, and health behavior change advice, as well as barriers and facilitators [29].

Brennan’s (2023) study was structured around weekly coursework consisting of three main components: online didactic pre-work, hands-on cooking labs accompanied by interactive discussions on nutrition topics, and patient case study sessions. Prior to each course day, students engaged in approximately one hour of online learning, spanning an 8-week. During the sessions, students participated in 90 min of supervised cooking in small groups, followed by a 30-minute shared meal and interactive discussion. Case study discussions occurred either in the classroom or online. The study employed pre- and post-training electronic questionnaires, utilizing a 5-point Likert scale. The pre-course survey comprised 23 questions, while the post-course survey expanded to 30 questions, each with a duration of 8 to 10 min [25].

Donovan (2023) organized a seminar aimed at enhancing providers’ comprehension of food, nutrition, and their implications for chronic disease management across three key learning domains: nutrition knowledge, nutrition counseling, and CS. Prior to commencement, participants received an electronic course manual, intended as a comprehensive resource for both the course content and accompanying recipes. The study incorporated pre- and post-training electronic questionnaires utilizing a 5-point Likert scale, where “1” (Not Confident) and “5” (Very Confident) and to assess their personal diet/nutrition and exercise habits on a scale from 1 to 10, with “1” (Very Unhealthy) and “10” (Very Healthy) [26].

Shafto’s (2023) study implemented a course consisting of six weekly sessions, with three hours each. Survey questions were developed based on feedback from a pilot course, emphasizing key content areas such as personal well-being, dietary habits, and skills to assist patients in adapting recipes to their dietary needs. These surveys were administered both before and after the course to gauge changes in knowledge and skills. The questionnaire was structured around five themes: Demographics, Personal Habits and Food Approach, Knowledge and Skills in Food and Culinary Practices, Knowledge in Clinical Practice, and Clinical Application. Certain questions utilized a five-point Likert scale to assess participant responses [27].

Table 2. Summary of the characteristics of the assessment instruments. Cooking Skills in Health Professionals: A Systematic Review, 2024.

Title of the Article	Type	Content	Format
Practice What You Teach Public Health Nurses Promoting Healthy Lifestyles (PHeeL-PHiNe): Program Evaluation [30]	Quantitative questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Four topics (attitudes toward a healthy lifestyle, physical activity to aerobic exercises, physical activity to workout sessions, Balanced diet).	Questionnaire before and after the courses, using the Likert scale (1 = disagree; 4 = very strongly agree).
Dietitians’ perspectives on patient barriers and enablers to weight management: An application of the social-ecological model [28]	Qualitative questionnaire (pilot to test the interview protocol) and semi-structured interviews	Four topics (individual-level enablers, relationship-level barriers, community-level barriers, societal-level barriers), with a total of 20 themes.	Individual semi-structured interviews, 30 to 61 min long.
Community Culinary Workshops as a Nutrition Curriculum in a Preventive Medicine Residency Program [22]	Quantitative questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	A 19-item questionnaire, including two demographic questions and 17 questions about self-perceived culinary experience, frequency of preparing meals at home, and their beliefs about the impact of culinary medicine education.	Questionnaire at the end of each workshop, using a 5-point Likert scale (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree).
Culinary Medicine Training in Core Medical School Curriculum Improved Medical Student Nutrition Knowledge and Confidence in Providing Nutrition Counseling [23]	Quantitative (validated, with psychometric details) and qualitative questionnaires	Four questions assessing perceived nutrition preparation, confidence, and knowledge in clinical care; five questions assessing preparation to address common barriers to healthy eating among patients; two open-ended qualitative questions.	Pre- and post-training quantitative questionnaires, with 5-point Likert-type scale, and open-ended qualitative questions.
Training of Registered Dietitian Nutritionists to Improve Culinary Skills and Food Literacy [24]	Quantitative electronic questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Six topics in the questionnaire: sociodemographic factors, perception of culinary nutrition skills, confidence in teaching food literacy, communication, process evaluation measures, comment card feedback themes, and findings.	Pre- and post-training electronic questionnaires with Likert ranking, lasting approximately 10 min, and a space for open-ended feedback at each workshop session.
Facilitators and barriers to providing culinary nutrition, culinary medicine and behaviour change support: An online cross-sectional survey of Australian health and education professionals [29]	Quantitative electronic questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Thirty-three questions, mostly closed but one open-ended question.	Pre- and post-training electronic questionnaires with an eight-point Likert scale, ranging from 7 “never/rarely” (0) to “very good” (7) and lasting approximately 20 min.
Impact of Culinary Medicine Course on Confidence and Competence in Diet and Lifestyle Counseling, Interprofessional Communication, and Health Behaviors and Advocacy [25]	Quantitative electronic questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Five categories of questions: (1) general course feedback, (2) dietary assessment and advice, (3) lifestyle counseling topics, (4) interdisciplinary communication, and (5) students’ health behaviors and wellness advocacy.	Pre- and post-training electronic questionnaires with 5-point Likert scale. The pre-course survey had 23 questions, and the post-course survey had 30 questions. Duration 8 to 10 min.
Eat to Treat: The Methods and Assessments of a Culinary Medicine Seminar for Future Physicians and Practicing Clinicians [26]	Quantitative electronic questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Thirteen questions in three domains (nutrition knowledge, nutrition counseling, and culinary skills).	Pre- and post-course electronic questionnaires with 5-point Likert scale.
Experiential Culinary, Nutrition and Food Systems Education Improves Knowledge and Confidence in Future Health Professionals [27]	Quantitative electronic questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Eleven questions in five themes (demographics, personal Habits and approach to food, knowledge/ability Related to food and culinary practices, knowledge in relation to clinical practice, clinical application)	Pre- and post-course electronic questionnaires with 5-point Likert scale.

Table 2. Summary of the characteristics of the assessment instruments. Cooking Skills in Health Professionals: A Systematic Review, 2024.

Title of the Article	Type	Content	Format
Practice What You Teach Public Health Nurses Promoting Healthy Lifestyles (PHeeL-PHiNe): Program Evaluation [30]	Quantitative questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Four topics (attitudes toward a healthy lifestyle, physical activity to aerobic exercises, physical activity to workout sessions, Balanced diet).	Questionnaire before and after the courses, using the Likert scale (1 = disagree; 4 = very strongly agree).
Dietitians’ perspectives on patient barriers and enablers to weight management: An application of the social-ecological model [28]	Qualitative questionnaire (pilot to test the interview protocol) and semi-structured interviews	Four topics (individual-level enablers, relationship-level barriers, community-level barriers, societal-level barriers), with a total of 20 themes.	Individual semi-structured interviews, 30 to 61 min long.
Community Culinary Workshops as a Nutrition Curriculum in a Preventive Medicine Residency Program [22]	Quantitative questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	A 19-item questionnaire, including two demographic questions and 17 questions about self-perceived culinary experience, frequency of preparing meals at home, and their beliefs about the impact of culinary medicine education.	Questionnaire at the end of each workshop, using a 5-point Likert scale (Strongly Disagree, Disagree, Neutral, Agree, Strongly Agree).
Culinary Medicine Training in Core Medical School Curriculum Improved Medical Student Nutrition Knowledge and Confidence in Providing Nutrition Counseling [23]	Quantitative (validated, with psychometric details) and qualitative questionnaires	Four questions assessing perceived nutrition preparation, confidence, and knowledge in clinical care; five questions assessing preparation to address common barriers to healthy eating among patients; two open-ended qualitative questions.	Pre- and post-training quantitative questionnaires, with 5-point Likert-type scale, and open-ended qualitative questions.
Training of Registered Dietitian Nutritionists to Improve Culinary Skills and Food Literacy [24]	Quantitative electronic questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Six topics in the questionnaire: sociodemographic factors, perception of culinary nutrition skills, confidence in teaching food literacy, communication, process evaluation measures, comment card feedback themes, and findings.	Pre- and post-training electronic questionnaires with Likert ranking, lasting approximately 10 min, and a space for open-ended feedback at each workshop session.
Facilitators and barriers to providing culinary nutrition, culinary medicine and behaviour change support: An online cross-sectional survey of Australian health and education professionals [29]	Quantitative electronic questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Thirty-three questions, mostly closed but one open-ended question.	Pre- and post-training electronic questionnaires with an eight-point Likert scale, ranging from 7 “never/rarely” (0) to “very good” (7) and lasting approximately 20 min.
Impact of Culinary Medicine Course on Confidence and Competence in Diet and Lifestyle Counseling, Interprofessional Communication, and Health Behaviors and Advocacy [25]	Quantitative electronic questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Five categories of questions: (1) general course feedback, (2) dietary assessment and advice, (3) lifestyle counseling topics, (4) interdisciplinary communication, and (5) students’ health behaviors and wellness advocacy.	Pre- and post-training electronic questionnaires with 5-point Likert scale. The pre-course survey had 23 questions, and the post-course survey had 30 questions. Duration 8 to 10 min.
Eat to Treat: The Methods and Assessments of a Culinary Medicine Seminar for Future Physicians and Practicing Clinicians [26]	Quantitative electronic questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Thirteen questions in three domains (nutrition knowledge, nutrition counseling, and culinary skills).	Pre- and post-course electronic questionnaires with 5-point Likert scale.
Experiential Culinary, Nutrition and Food Systems Education Improves Knowledge and Confidence in Future Health Professionals [27]	Quantitative electronic questionnaire (validated, with psychometric details)	Eleven questions in five themes (demographics, personal Habits and approach to food, knowledge/ability Related to food and culinary practices, knowledge in relation to clinical practice, clinical application)	Pre- and post-course electronic questionnaires with 5-point Likert scale.

4. Discussion

4.1. General View of the Studies and Instruments

Most of the articles reviewed hail from the United States of America, and all publications were in English, with a significant concentration of articles emerging within the past two years. Despite their varied purposes, the studies collectively gravitate around analogous thematic threads, clustering into distinct categories such as discussions on the integration of culinary skills as a professional competency, exploration of healthcare professionals’ perspectives on culinary aptitude, assessment of programmatic outcomes among healthcare personnel, and evaluation of the effects of augmented food-related competencies among professionals.

This geographic concentration limits the direct transferability of results to other contexts, such as Mediterranean or low-income countries, due to differences in culinary traditions, healthcare systems, professional training, and resource availability. Moreover, structural barriers restrict research production and publication in less-resourced countries, resulting in their underrepresentation. Therefore, adapting culinary skills training to local cultures, resources, and infrastructures is essential, along with further research to validate interventions in diverse settings.

Each investigation presented a comprehensive outline, often supported by a solid conceptual framework to elucidate the definition of the respective instrument constructs. The study by Hasson (2018), D’Adamo (2022), McWhorter (2022), Asher (2023), and Shafto (2023) used pilot questionnaires to conduct research evaluation and/or to structure courses to improve understanding of participants about nutrition and physical activity, integrating practical elements such as group cooking sessions [23,24,27,29,30]. Aboueid’s (2019) research focused on refining an interview protocol to explore nutritionists’ perspectives on weight management barriers, reflecting a qualitative approach to understanding healthcare professionals’ views [28].

Lang (2019) developed culinary workshops for preventive medicine residents, emphasizing participatory processes to establish curricular goals, as do Brennan (2023) and Donovan (2023) [22,25,26]. Brennan (2023) structured the course around online pre-work and cooking labs to enhance students’ skills and knowledge [25].

All the studies analyzed enrich our understanding of how culinary education can be effectively integrated into professional training programs, covering diverse methodologies and objectives.

The articles also exhibited a range of sample sizes, instruments, and populations, influenced by the nature of interventions, reflecting substantial heterogeneity among the included studies. Many studies centered on program evaluation, employing quantitative analyses to gauge pre- and post-intervention impacts, while others integrated qualitative methodologies to enrich their findings, collectively highlighting enhancements in nutritional understanding, culinary skills, counseling techniques, and participants’ dietary behaviors, thereby extending potential influence on broader community health outcomes.

4.2. General View of Cooking Skills in Health Professionals

Based on our comprehensive literature search, it appears that this systematic review is the first to aggregate studies focusing on cooking skills within the realm of health professionals. These studies encompass the conceptualization of CSs, methods for measuring these skills, and their application in real-world settings, particularly in contexts closely related to patient care. This review aims to elucidate how CSs can influence health outcomes and impact the communities served by these professionals.

For the purpose of this review, we adopted the definition proposed by Michaud (2007) [1] and Jomori (2018) [2], which conceptualizes cooking skills as a set of knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to planning, selecting, preparing, and storing food in a healthy, safe, and culturally appropriate manner. This definition highlights the multifaceted nature of CSs, going beyond technical execution to include behavioral and cognitive components essential for health promotion.

Food literacy is widely recognized as pivotal in fostering healthy dietary practices and mitigating diet-related diseases. Various factors, including socioeconomic status, cultural background, level of education, and environmental influences, shape an individual’s food literacy. The incorporation of CSs into this discourse not only enriches our understanding but also bridges the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical culinary abilities among individuals.

The proliferation of processed foods and fast-food consumption in contemporary society has contributed to a surge in chronic health conditions like obesity and diabetes. Integrating culinary training into professional healthcare education can fortify the patient-professional relationship, bolster treatment adherence, enhance intervention efficacy, and facilitate enduring lifestyle modifications. Nevertheless, practical and infrastructural challenges, such as resource availability and time constraints, must be addressed to effectively integrate culinary education into professional training programs.

Our systematic review elucidates a discernible enhancement in professionals’ knowledge, attitudes, and practices concerning their personal health and well-being. Moreover, there is a perceived shift in organizational culture towards prioritizing health among healthcare professionals. Offering culinary courses throughout healthcare training programs could instill an appreciation for the role of nutrition in disease prevention and management, thereby complementing interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary training paradigms.

McWhorter (2022) underscores the indispensable role of CSs for dietitians in fostering healthy dietary behaviors and preventing diet-related illnesses [24]. Begley (2010) previously emphasized the significance of culinary proficiency in dietary practice, igniting discussions about the inclusion of CSs in conventional nutrition education [31]. Similarly, Nanayakkara (2017) highlighted the pivotal role of food studies curricula in equipping professionals to address food and nutrition-related challenges. Discrepancies in professional opinions regarding existing curricula underscore the imperative for ongoing evaluation and refinement [32].

Tailored training programs designed to cultivate cooking skills and enhance food literacy among dietitians and nutritionists represent a promising strategy for empowering these professionals to advocate for healthy dietary behaviors and improve public health outcomes. Integrating hands-on cooking workshops, differentiated teaching methodologies, and case studies facilitates the practical application of knowledge in these programs, which can further strengthen skill development and confidence. Collaborative efforts with other healthcare and educational stakeholders can amplify the impact of these initiatives, fostering interdisciplinary approaches to address complex nutritional challenges and promote holistic well-being.

4.3. Limitations and Strengths

Some limitations should be noted in this review. Firstly, there is a possibility that certain studies were overlooked due to their absence from the databases searched or their publication was not indexed. Secondly, despite adapting criteria from previous studies, there remains a degree of subjectivity in the interpretation of the included studies, which may have led to both underestimation and overestimation of their difficulty level.

Additionally, to address the issue of differences between studies, a narrative synthesis approach was employed, allowing for the integration of diverse results while respecting methodological differences. This approach recognizes the inherent limitations of combining different study designs and populations and emphasizes the need for cautious interpretation of aggregated results.

However, to the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic review focusing on healthcare professionals’ CSs. Given the relatively small exploration of CSs in health professionals, this review is seen as an interesting starting point toward further investigation, poised to advance the development of intervention programs and stimulate broader discussions.

5. Conclusions

This systematic review, employing rigorous evaluation criteria, successfully identified studies that merged CSs with the practices of healthcare professionals, clarifying their challenges in this domain. The assessment of CS covers multifaceted domains, intertwining with several constructs relevant to health habits. Although some validated instruments were found for assessing CSs in this particular setting, there is a pressing need to formulate a more cohesive definition of CSs as a construct that helps to evaluate them on a more regular and comparable basis, thus improving our understanding of the barriers and facilitators linked to healthy culinary practices in health professionals.