Analysis of the Role of Voluntary Agents in the Socio-Cultural Integration and Emancipation of Unaccompanied Minors in Italy

Abstract

The aim of this study is to analyse the active role of volunteers in the Italian reception system and to assess how their actions and strategies contribute to the construction of an environment that promotes the autonomy and protagonism of unaccompanied minors in the development of their migration project. Based on a theoretical framework that combines socio-educational and psychosocial approaches and theories of community participation, the study addresses the importance of volunteering as a key tool in processes of inclusion and the development of personal migration projects. A qualitative approach is adopted under the interpretative paradigm, using a collective case study carried out at the Scuola Penny Wirton in Rome. The sample was selected through purposive and convenience sampling, integrating 25 volunteer agents (68% women and 32% men), aged between 60 and 84. Semi-structured interviews were conducted. The results show that volunteers deploy flexible and personalised strategies, prioritising the creation of a climate of trust and contextualised language learning as a vehicle for integration. Likewise, the importance of emotional support, identification and attention to psychosocial needs, and the promotion of a sense of belonging is evident. However, a lack of formal mechanisms for interdisciplinary collaboration is detected.

1. Introduction

The movement of human populations is a universal phenomenon that consists of moving from places with poorer living conditions to others where they are better, perhaps due to climatic conditions or access to resources, and this phenomenon has always been linked to human evolution (Clerc, 2022; Torres et al., 2022). Specifically, Italy is a European country that plays a key role in the movement of unaccompanied minors due to its strategic location. In this sense, it is a vital transit point. On the other hand, the main countries of origin of minors entering Italy are Egypt, Tunisia, Guinea and Gambia. In addition, these minors come from a broad range of countries, particularly Egypt, Gambia, Tunisia and Guinea, with African countries continuing to account for the largest proportion of arrivals. By the end of 2024, approximately 18,625 unaccompanied foreign minors were registered within the Italian reception system, highlighting the sustained relevance of the Italian context in the management and reception of migrant minors in Europe. However, recent data indicate that the majority of unaccompanied minors arriving in Italy are adolescents aged between 16 and 17 years old, with 56.8% being 17 years old and 21% aged 16 (Alguacil & Alamá-Sabater, 2021; European Commission, 2026; Ministero del Lavoro e delle Politiche Sociali, 2025; Rania et al., 2018; Rota et al., 2022).

Child migration has been a pressing concern for both policymakers and stakeholders. The concern lies in its complexity and multifaceted nature. That is, unaccompanied minors are individuals who arrive without the presence of a parent or legal guardian and, as such, find themselves in a situation that leaves them vulnerable and often subject to exploitation and abuse (Heimli et al., 2024; Höhne et al., 2022). However, the problem is further complicated by the lack of established procedures to address the needs of this group, as well as their integration after obtaining asylum or other forms of protection (Björkenstam et al., 2020; Fernández-Pacheco et al., 2025; Miklikowska et al., 2021). As such, policymakers and stakeholders must work together to develop effective policies and programmes that ensure the safety and well-being of these vulnerable individuals (Escalada-Álvarez, 2021; Grace & Roth, 2020). In the Italian context, one of the most significant legislative developments regarding the protection of unaccompanied migrant children was the adoption of the so-called Zampa Law (Legge No. 47, 2017), considered the first comprehensive legislative framework in Europe specifically aimed at the protection of unaccompanied foreign minors. This legislation introduced measures centred on the best interests of the child, guaranteeing rights relating to reception, healthcare, education, the prohibition of refoulement at the border, and support towards processes of social inclusion and autonomy (Giovannetti, 2017).

Drawing on Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological theory, the processes of integration and emancipation of unaccompanied migrant children can be understood as the result of ongoing interactions between the individual and the multiple social environments in which they participate. From this perspective, volunteers within the Italian reception system constitute a key element of the minors’ microsystem, as they establish direct relational, educational and emotional bonds that can positively influence their well-being, identity formation and social participation. Furthermore, the relationships formed between volunteers, educational institutions, community networks and reception centres reflect the importance of the mesosystem in promoting coherent and supportive integration pathways. In turn, this approach allows us to understand how broader structural dimensions, such as migration policies, socio-political discourses and institutional protection systems, shape the opportunities and limitations experienced by minors during their transition to adulthood. Consequently, Bronfenbrenner’s theory offers a comprehensive framework for analysing how the practices developed by volunteers contribute not only to immediate psycho-educational support, but also to the development of autonomy, resilience and a sense of belonging within the host society.

From a theoretical perspective, this study is grounded in a combination of socio-educational and psychosocial approaches, together with theories of community participation. Socio-educational approaches emphasise the importance of personalised learning processes, social inclusion and the development of autonomy in vulnerable populations. In parallel, psychosocial perspectives highlight the relevance of emotional support, identity construction and resilience in the integration processes of unaccompanied minors. Finally, theories of community participation underline the role of collective engagement, social networks and volunteering as key elements in fostering belonging and social integration. This integrated framework allows for a comprehensive understanding of the educational and relational practices implemented by volunteers in reception contexts (Boke et al., 2025; Giera, 2025; Mastrothanasis et al., 2025).

In particular, previous research conducted in Italy has focused predominantly on the issue of unaccompanied migrant minors from the children’s perspective. These studies have examined risk factors, resources that can be implemented, vulnerability factors related to traumatic experiences, and the identification of resources and resilience driven by a strong motivation to succeed in the host country (Aliye & Serap, 2025; Avignone et al., 2025; Weise et al., 2025). In addition, researchers have studied the perception of the migration process and educational interventions from the perspective of unaccompanied migrant adolescents through their life stories (Giannopoulou et al., 2024). More specifically, they have focused on the representations of educational operators regarding the relationship between unaccompanied migrant minors and their families of origin (Ntagka & Cochliou, 2024; Taha et al., 2024), the promotion of social service networks (Gimeno-Monterde & Mendoza-Pérez, 2024) and the construction of the social representation of childhood by social workers (Moberg Stephenson & Herz, 2024). However, despite the influx of unaccompanied minors, the effectiveness and adequacy of European and national responses to address their situation has been limited and questionable (Leliott, 2022).

Therefore, the emancipation of minors is conditioned by a variety of complex social factors that differentiate them from their peers. This gives rise to the need to establish specific strategies to overcome the obstacles of their social reality as foreign citizens. In this sense, the migration route has consequences for the need for intervention, but the protection system has not designed specific state actions to address their specific situation, which translates into inadequate institutional protection (Fernández-Simo et al., 2022; Martínez Salvador et al., 2021). The obstacles, which are related to the psychological, social and cultural profile of this group, existing in the response to this complex social reality have generated a significant lack of homogeneity in psycho-educational interventions in the Italian context. As a result, this is detrimental when they reach the age of majority, as they go from being protected to unprotected, becoming a target population for social, political and cultural threats due to socio-political discourses (Gaspari & Agrela Romero, 2022).

Therefore, taking into account the above, this study aims to understand the active role played by voluntary agents within the Italian reception system, in order to assess how their actions and strategies contribute to the construction of an environment that promotes the autonomy and protagonism of unaccompanied minors in the development of their migration project. This general objective translates into the following specific objectives: (a) To identify and describe the main strategies implemented by volunteers to facilitate the social and cultural integration of minors; (b) To analyse the emotional support practices used by volunteers to meet the needs of minors who have experienced a traumatic migration process; (c) To explore the teaching methods and learning activities used by volunteers; (d) To examine the degree of involvement and participation of minors in the activities proposed by volunteers, as well as the motivational mechanisms used to strengthen the sense of belonging and self-esteem of migrant minors.

However, given the exploratory nature of the research, and in line with the proposed objectives, the research questions guiding this study are: (a) What are the main strategies implemented by volunteer agents to facilitate the social and cultural integration of unaccompanied migrant minors? (b) How do volunteer agents address the emotional needs of minors who have experienced a traumatic migration process through their psycho-emotional support practices? (c) What teaching methods and learning activities do volunteer agents use in teaching migrant minors? (d) To what extent do minors become involved and participate in the activities proposed by volunteers, and what motivational mechanisms do volunteers use to strengthen the sense of belonging and self-esteem of migrant minors?

2. Materials and Methods

The research is situated within the interpretive paradigm and employs a qualitative approach through a collective case study, which allows for an in-depth and detailed analysis of the unit of study, prioritising the effectiveness, relevance and impact of practices in their specific context over naturalistic generalisations (Stake, 2020).

Participants were selected intentionally, as consideration was given to which agents were best suited to provide information relevant to the study’s needs. The sample included 25 volunteer agents linked to the Scuola Penny Wirton in Rome (Italy). Of the total, 68% (n = 17) were women and 32% (n = 8) were men. In terms of age, 60% (n = 15) were between 60 and 69 years old, 28% (n = 7) were between 70 and 79 years old, and 12% (n = 3) were between 80 and 84 years old. On the other hand, in relation to their employment status, 80% (n = 20) are pensioners, 12% (n = 3) are actively employed, and 8% (n = 2) are in another employment situation. Likewise, in terms of their level of education, 64% (n = 16) have a university degree, 32% (n = 8) have a high school diploma, and 4% (n = 1) have completed compulsory secondary education. Furthermore, in terms of professional occupation, 36% (n = 9) are teachers, 12% (n = 3) are pensioners, 4% (n = 1) are librarians, 4% (n = 1) are merchants, 4% (n = 1) industrial engineers, 4% (n = 1) tax directors, 4% (n = 1) publishers, 8% (n = 2) journalists, 4% (n = 1) civil servants, 4% (n = 1) computer scientists, 4% (n = 1) managers, 4% (n = 1) electricians, 4% (n = 1) translators and, finally, 4% (n = 1) social educators. All participants speak at least two languages (Italian and, in addition, English, Spanish or French).

Scuola Penny Wirton is a network of Italian schools whose aim is to teach Italian to migrants and refugees in a free, inclusive and personalised way. Its methodology is based on individualised ‘one-to-one’ teaching between a volunteer and a student, adapting to each person’s needs and learning pace. Unlike traditional models, it prioritises human relationships, flexible support and a welcoming environment where making mistakes is part of the learning process. In this way, language learning becomes a key tool for promoting social inclusion, autonomy and a sense of belonging within the host society.

In this context, volunteers play a vital role as educational, relational and community-based agents, distinguished not only by their teaching of the Italian language, but also by their provision of emotional support, their ability to build trust, and their promotion of intercultural communication and the forging of meaningful bonds with migrants. Through flexible and human-centred strategies, such as everyday conversations, games, images and dynamic activities, they help to create a welcoming and inclusive learning environment. From a socio-educational perspective, the Scuola Penny Wirton serves as a space for social integration where language learning acts as a tool to promote community participation, autonomy and a sense of belonging, whilst also establishing itself as a free, secular and apolitical initiative sustained by voluntary work and community collaboration.

The selection was made using purposive and convenience sampling, combining criteria of diversity (gender, age, educational level) and availability to participate in 60–90 min face-to-face interviews. The volunteers were contacted through coordinators at each centre, provided with detailed information about the study and signed an informed consent form, agreeing to the recording and anonymous use of their data. The varied profile of the participants provided a comprehensive and multifaceted view of voluntary strategies and their impact on the emancipation of migrant minors.

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Vice-Chancellor’s Office for Research and Transfer at the University of Granada (Spain) under number 2598/CEIH/2022. Subsequently, four phases were followed: (a) Recruitment and consent, where the coordinators of the different branches of the Scuola Penny Wirton were contacted to identify volunteers with experience in working directly with unaccompanied minors. Each volunteer was sent a report detailing the objectives, scope and voluntary nature of their participation. An informed consent form was provided (Bardin, 1996; Krippendorff, 2004), explaining the guarantees of anonymity, confidentiality and the right to withdraw from the research at any time, in accordance with the guidelines of the World Medical Association (2024); (b) scheduling and conducting interviews: once consent had been obtained, 90 min individual interviews were scheduled and carried out between January and March 2025. All interviews were conducted by the principal investigator following the semi-structured guide and were digitally recorded; (c) transcription and verification, in which the recordings were transcribed and each transcript was sent to the corresponding participant for validation and correction of possible interpretation errors (MacLean et al., 2004); and, finally, (d) preparation of the data for analysis, where the validated transcripts were coded in qualitative analysis software (Nvivo15), where open codes were assigned inductively.

The data collection technique chosen for this study is the pre-designed semi-structured interview (κ = 0.96), which allows for the collection of pragmatic information about how individuals behave and reconstruct social representations in their practices with the aim of constructing the social meaning of the individual or group behaviour in question (Taylor & Bogdan, 1992; Toscano, 2009). In this sense, the aim is to explore the role played by voluntary agents within the Italian reception system.

To reduce the data and organise the information, an inductive system of categories was established (

Table 1. Category system for analysing interview protocols.

Code	Category	Definition
SI	Socio-Cultural integration	Strategies to promote inclusion in the centre and local community.
EPN	Emotional and psychological needs	Identification and addressing emotional and psychological needs, especially after traumatic experiences.
TM	Teaching methodologies	Teaching methods for language learning and its connection to everyday life.
MS	Motivational strategies	Strategies to encourage the active participation of minors in educational, work or social activities.
CAT	Cultural barriers and acculturation	Support and resources to promote the acculturation process of minors.
IC	Interdisciplinary collaboration	Ways of coordinating with other professionals (psychologists, social educators, etc.) for integrated plans.
SB	Sense of belonging	Measures to strengthen minors’ sense of belonging and self-esteem through specific tasks.
CN	Contextualisation of needs	Contextualisation of needs according to the characteristics of each minor.
SV	Situations of vulnerability	Interventions aimed at at-risk groups (women, low academic motivation, etc.).
PPL	Professional and personal learning	Reflections and opinions of volunteers on what they have learned and how they integrate it into their daily practice with unaccompanied minors.

). These categories were defined to meet the requirements of this research. Likewise, the category system is validated through expert judgement and triangulation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Three researchers who are experts in the field issued their judgements according to exclusionary criteria (Bardin, 1996): exhaustiveness (the categories cover the entire planning process), mutual exclusion (each record unit cannot be included in more than one category), homogeneity (the categories are defined according to the same definition principle), objectivity (impartiality in the naming of categories), relevance (importance of each category for extracting information from the interviews) and productivity (the categories provide valuable results in the information). To assess the reliability of the degree of agreement among the expert judges, Cohen’s kappa coefficient was calculated, which showed excellent reliability (κ = 0.95). Next, through a cyclical and recursive process, the data from the interviewees’ protocols (Parameswaran et al., 2020) were triangulated with three expert researchers to provide greater consistency to the findings (Yin, 2011).

3. Results

The main findings from the content analysis and category network are presented below, organised according to the thematic blocks identified. Thus, both the frequency and relevance of each category and the structural connections between them are explored to provide an integrated view of the role of volunteer agents and their contribution to the community that intentionally collaborates to create a welcoming environment for migrant children.

3.1. Socio-Cultural Integration

The results reveal that educators agree that creating a space of closeness and trust is the starting point for social and cultural integration. In this sense, participants emphasise the importance of establishing personal bonds through reciprocal communication and a relaxed relational climate. For example, one volunteer explains that “I try to get them to talk about themselves and I also tell them something about myself to create a small bond… then I try to teach them Italian as best I can, which is an essential tool for integration” (E1), while others highlight the need to “establish a relaxed and trusting relationship” (E11).

In addition, volunteers consider that the most suitable approach to language learning involves the use of dynamic and contextualised strategies linked to the daily lives of minors. These include the use of images, repetition and practical vocabulary, often following the Penny Wirton method, as noted by one participant who states: “I follow Penny Wirton’s method… I use images, reading and repeating phrases together, everyday vocabulary with the help of the book” (E3). Along these lines, participants stress the importance of building personalised learning paths based on each minor’s experience, combining grammar, conversation and educational games to facilitate meaningful learning (E4).

Furthermore, emotional support and the reinforcement of self-esteem emerge as key elements in promoting integration and autonomy. Volunteers underline the relevance of active listening and the recognition of personal experiences, encouraging minors to share their life stories and future aspirations. As one participant explains, “I ask them to tell me their story and how they came to Italy and what their plans are… to give them confidence and hope to believe in themselves” (E13), while another highlights the importance of “listening to their life story and helping them express themselves” (E7). These practices are grounded in values such as empathy, availability and respect, which are recurrently mentioned by participants (E8, E9, E15, E17, E23).

Finally, volunteers emphasise the importance of guiding minors towards educational and employment opportunities as a means of facilitating their transition to adulthood. In this regard, language learning is perceived as a key tool for integration and access to further opportunities, as reflected in statements such as “teaching Italian and helping them obtain a secondary school diploma” (E2) or “providing access to the company so that they can find employment” (E16). Similarly, some participants stress that communication skills are essential for integration, noting that “for integration, it is essential for migrants to communicate, that is, to understand and express themselves in the local language” (E20). In addition, volunteering and collaborative practices are seen as mechanisms to promote solidarity and mutual learning within the community.

3.2. Emotional and Psychological Needs

The findings reveal that volunteers view psychological support as a gradual, child-centred process. First, they strive to create an atmosphere of trust and care in which minors feel comfortable and not pressured. In this sense, participants emphasise the importance of facilitating integration into the school and social environment while building relational bonds based on empathy and genuine interest (E1, E2). As one volunteer explains, “I help them integrate into the school environment, facilitate their relationships with institutions, create bonds between them and, only if they ask me to, share their experiences and, beyond teaching, I give them empathy and genuine interest” (E1).

To foster this climate, volunteers avoid invasive questioning and respect each minor’s pace, offering active listening only when they show a willingness to talk about their migration experiences. Participants highlight that giving time and space is essential, as “sometimes a simple question is enough to unleash a flood of memories and needs. And then listen” (E6). In this regard, when the opportunity arises to address traumatic experiences, they tend to use open-ended and non-intrusive questions that allow for emotional expression without forcing the re-experiencing of trauma (E7).

In addition, volunteers emphasise the importance of personalising support by recognising the uniqueness of each migration trajectory and the emotional impact associated with early family separation. As one participant notes, it is essential to acknowledge that each minor has “a significant history that cannot be ignored (…) and painful events that sometimes mark them physically”, and therefore “we only talk about it when they do” (E8). Similarly, other volunteers underline the need to create conditions of trust that enable minors to gradually externalise their experiences and process them emotionally (E15).

Finally, the participants acknowledge their own professional limitations when it comes to addressing complex psychological needs. Although they attempt to provide initial emotional support, the participants recognise the need to refer children to specialist professionals where necessary to ensure comprehensive care. As one volunteer explicitly states: “I don’t have the skills needed to do this” (E25), which highlights the importance of interdisciplinary intervention.

3.3. Teaching Methodologies

The findings reveal that volunteers adopt flexible teaching methodologies adapted to the minors’ literacy levels and previous experiences. In particular, they prioritise the use of visual aids such as images, drawings and gestures to introduce functional vocabulary and phonemes, avoiding abstract theoretical explanations or isolated letters. In this regard, participants describe using visual and contextualised strategies, as one volunteer explains: “I teach using many images, especially those related to everyday activities (…) I ask them to listen to the translation of Italian words into their language” (E1). Similarly, others emphasise the use of gestures, drawings and simulated situations to facilitate comprehension (E23).

Along these lines, volunteers highlight the importance of developing initial vocabulary through meaningful and familiar contexts, especially when working with learners who are illiterate in their mother tongue. For example, one participant notes that they focus on “whole words and phonemes (…) and typical survival phrases (…) in situations that are familiar to them” (E4), while also selecting universal topics such as food or music to build shared understanding.

In addition, participants underline the relevance of adopting a personalised and creative approach rather than a rigid methodological framework. As one volunteer states, “rather than a method, I use a style (…) adapting to their learning ability” (E2), reinforcing the idea that flexibility and responsiveness to individual needs are central to the teaching process.

Furthermore, many volunteers report systematically using the Penny Wirton method, combining reading, repetition and sentence construction in real-life contexts to foster meaningful learning. As indicated by one participant, this involves “using images, reading and repeating phrases together, everyday vocabulary (…) creating curiosity about the cultural and social environment they want to integrate into” (E7).

At the same time, volunteers alternate traditional grammar instruction with more interactive approaches, such as free conversation linked to everyday experiences, which helps reinforce language acquisition in a practical way (E12). They also incorporate playful strategies, games and real-life tasks to enhance motivation and engagement. In some cases, digital resources are used to diversify learning stimuli, including mobile applications or music, as one participant explains: “I try to encourage them to use [their mobile phone] to learn the language as well (for example, I recommend listening to Italian music)” (E20).

Finally, the teaching process is continuously adapted based on an initial assessment of each student’s level. Volunteers emphasise the importance of planning lessons with patience and attention to individual progress, developing personalised learning pathways that support both oral and written expression. As one participant notes, “first I try to understand the initial level and then I plan the lesson, always with a lot of patience and attention to learning” (E21).

3.4. Motivational Strategies

The findings show that volunteers use a variety of strategies to actively motivate minors, combining pedagogical and relational approaches. In particular, they design lessons focused on everyday expressions and avoid overwhelming learners with excessive theoretical content, instead alternating explanations with engaging and playful activities. As one participant explains, the aim is “not to make lessons tedious and [to teach] expressions that are useful in everyday life” (E1), while others emphasise the importance of “alternating moments of learning with moments of play” to sustain interest (E22).

A central element in fostering motivation is the creation of a climate of trust in which volunteers attend to each minor’s personal needs and interests. In this regard, participants highlight the importance of generating opportunities for minors to talk about themselves and share their experiences, for example, through topics such as family or sports (E4). As one volunteer notes, “I try to gain their trust by taking an interest in their lives and telling them about mine, because, before learning, it ignites in them the desire to relate” (E25). Similarly, creating a supportive relational environment is seen as key to stimulating motivation and engagement in the integration process (E2).

In addition, volunteers incorporate flexible and participatory methodologies—such as board games, collaborative projects and real-life tasks—to reinforce active involvement. These strategies are often linked to broader goals of encouraging curiosity and promoting social and cultural development, as highlighted by one participant who refers to “stimulating their curiosity and encouraging their desire for social and cultural improvement” (E7).

Furthermore, participants emphasise the instrumental value of language learning and academic achievement as pathways to social and labour integration. In this sense, volunteers seek to make minors aware that “knowledge of the language and a qualification are the key to integrating into our country with a decent and fairly paid job” (E11), thereby reinforcing their motivation through future-oriented goals.

Finally, recognition and reinforcement of achievements play a crucial role in sustaining engagement. Volunteers highlight the importance of valuing each learner’s progress, no matter how small, as reflected in statements such as “valuing each of their small but significant achievements” (E19). This process is complemented by continuous adaptation of teaching pace and resources—such as images, gestures and digital tools—based on the initial assessment of each learner. In this way, volunteers not only promote language acquisition but also foster a sense of agency, ensuring that minors feel they are active protagonists in their own learning process.

3.5. Cultural Barriers and Acculturation

The results show that participants focus their support on overcoming cultural barriers through empathy and mutual respect. In particular, volunteers emphasise the importance of avoiding placing minors in a position of inferiority and instead promoting dialogue about cultural differences in order to normalise them. As one participant explains, this involves “empathy [and a] fair comparison between my culture and theirs (…) [without making] them feel inferior, but talking about cultural differences” (E3). Similarly, others highlight the importance of conveying inclusive messages, such as the idea that “even with different languages, religions and cultures, we are all brothers and sisters” (E13).

In this context, volunteers frequently use their own personal experiences, beliefs and values as a model of solidarity and understanding. Some participants explicitly acknowledge that their support is grounded in their own perspectives on migration and intercultural coexistence, stating that “the support is myself, my beliefs and the experience I have gained as an individual” (E21). This approach allows them to foster relationships based on closeness, respect and shared humanity.

Furthermore, participants combine language teaching with recreational and educational activities that incorporate local traditions and customs, thereby facilitating integration into the host society. In this regard, volunteers highlight the importance of “helping them to integrate through knowledge of our customs and traditions” (E14), as well as encouraging participation in cultural and educational activities within the community (E9). At the same time, they emphasise the need to respect and value the cultural backgrounds of minors, showing genuine interest in diversity (E19).

In addition, ongoing support and follow-up are considered essential to accompany minors throughout their integration process. Volunteers report maintaining continuous engagement whenever possible, adapting their approaches to each individual and their specific context (E22). In this sense, they also recognise and make use of the informal “common language” that often emerges among young people from different cultural backgrounds, which can facilitate communication and mutual understanding (E24).

Finally, participants underline the importance of working through both similarities and differences between cultures as a means of fostering integration. As one volunteer explains, the goal is “to proceed through the similarities and differences between our culture and theirs (…) trying to find a possible integration between the two experiences” (E25). Overall, these practices reflect an approach based on intercultural dialogue, mutual recognition and the co-construction of shared meanings.

3.6. Interdisciplinary Collaboration

Evidence shows that collaboration with other professionals is mainly informal and unsystematic. While some volunteers maintain occasional contact with shelters or participate in the Scuola Penny Wirton network, most report the absence of clear structures for coordinated work with psychologists, social educators, social workers or other specialists. In this regard, several participants explicitly highlight the lack of formal collaboration mechanisms, noting that “there is no direct, structured collaboration” (E17) and, in some cases, that “these things don’t exist at our school” (E1).

Despite this, some volunteers describe maintaining informal forms of coordination, particularly through contact with reception centres to monitor minors’ needs and behaviours. For example, one participant explains that “I keep in touch with the centres where the minors are housed, monitoring their behaviour and needs where necessary” (E2), while others report occasional coordination with educators to address specific issues such as punctuality or behavioural norms (E8). In addition, some participants indicate that their centres are connected to third-sector organisations that can provide support in certain situations (E4), although access to these resources is not always consistent, as reflected in statements such as “this possibility does not always exist” (E7).

Furthermore, in the absence of formalised systems, volunteers often rely on informal exchanges with colleagues or other actors to address emerging needs. In this sense, some participants report seeking advice from peers or comparing experiences in an unstructured manner, as one volunteer notes: “I have informally sought comparisons with some colleagues (…) to compare the needs of certain students” (E20). Similarly, others indicate that support may come from unexpected sources, such as secondary school students, highlighting the lack of established professional networks (E24).

Overall, participants acknowledge that they frequently operate in a self-directed manner, without access to structured interdisciplinary support systems. As one volunteer states, “we are self-taught and do not have a network of professionals with whom to collaborate” (E11). This situation reflects the absence of formalised collaborative models and underscores the need to design more robust mechanisms for interdisciplinary coordination in order to provide comprehensive care for unaccompanied minors.

3.7. Sense of Belonging

The results show that participants promote a sense of belonging and reinforce minors’ self-esteem through an approach based on recognition, involvement and relational closeness. In particular, volunteers emphasise the importance of valuing each achievement and encouraging minors to express themselves, thereby fostering confidence and personal agency. In this regard, participants highlight practices such as actively listening to their needs (E12) and reinforcing their progress through positive feedback and encouragement.

A key strategy for strengthening this sense of belonging involves encouraging minors to share their personal and cultural identities. Volunteers frequently invite them to talk about their country of origin, values and life experiences, which helps them feel recognised and respected. As one participant explains, “I ask them to tell us about their country of origin and their values” (E2), while others similarly note that they “get them to talk about their country and try to learn more about their reality of origin” (E15). These practices contribute to creating spaces where diversity is acknowledged and appreciated.

In addition, volunteers complement these dynamics with recreational and participatory activities that promote interaction, dialogue and solidarity among peers. For example, some participants report dedicating part of the sessions to games that stimulate conversation and social connection (E4), as well as encouraging participation in cultural events that enrich the minors’ community experience (E5). These activities are also linked to the promotion of friendship and mutual support, as reflected in efforts aimed at “creating solidarity and friendship” within the group (E13).

Furthermore, participants highlight the importance of treating minors with respect and autonomy, encouraging them to express their perspectives and take an active role in their learning process. This approach contributes to reinforcing their self-esteem and sense of responsibility. In this sense, volunteers describe adapting their strategies to individual needs and recognising each learner’s progress, as one participant explains: “I try to emphasise the value and encouragement of each learning achievement (…) and identify specific teaching strategies when difficulties arise” (E20).

Finally, personalised communication, empathy and a genuine interest in minors’ traditions and backgrounds contribute to creating a welcoming environment in which they feel included and valued. As noted by one participant, the educational context itself can foster a collective sense of belonging, “highlighting the convergence of diverse origins and differences” (E20). Overall, these practices support the co-construction of inclusive spaces where minors can develop a strong sense of belonging and self-worth.

3.8. Contextualisation of Needs

The findings indicate that volunteers design their interventions in a highly personalised and individualised manner, taking as a starting point an initial informal assessment or small diagnostic activities that allow them to determine each minor’s level of maturity and linguistic proficiency. In this regard, participants emphasise that “the approach varies depending on each person” (E1), highlighting the need to adapt teaching processes to individual characteristics rather than applying standardised methods. This is further reinforced by the idea that “the type of teaching [should] be adapted to the student, and not the other way around” (E11).

Based on this initial understanding, volunteers construct flexible learning pathways that combine reading, writing and conversation with playful and practical activities. These pathways alternate between more structured and spontaneous moments depending on the minor’s motivation and engagement in the classroom. For example, some participants describe beginning with a basic assessment and then adapting their approach accordingly, noting that “a short initial test and then everything becomes easier” (E21), while others emphasise the importance of understanding both the learner’s level and their goals for language learning (E14).

In addition, empathy and the absence of stigma and prejudice are central to the volunteers’ approach. Participants highlight the importance of building an empathetic relationship, “above all, without prejudice” (E2), which involves attentive listening, exploring personal interests and family contexts, and respecting each minor’s pace in deciding when to advance or slow down. In this sense, volunteers seek to understand not only academic needs but also emotional and motivational dimensions, as reflected in practices such as “listening to understand who I am dealing with and looking for tools that spark their interest” (E25) or asking about their lives in order to identify the most appropriate moments for learning and play (E24).

Furthermore, while some volunteers rely on structured adaptive methodologies—such as the Scuola Penny Wirton materials (E8)—others adopt a more creative approach, reconfiguring traditional teaching processes to better respond to individual needs. However, all participants emphasise maintaining a clear focus on the central objective of language acquisition, ensuring that adaptation does not compromise learning goals. As one volunteer explains, “I adapt without ever losing sight of the goal, which is to teach the language” (E23).

Finally, participants highlight their efforts to balance academic demands with emotional care, ensuring that minors feel motivated, supported and understood throughout the teaching–learning process. This involves progressing gradually, “little by little, trying to understand and value their learning, their enjoyment, their motivation” (E7), while respecting each learner’s pace and reinforcing their engagement. Overall, this personalised approach enables volunteers to respond flexibly to diverse needs while fostering meaningful and inclusive learning experiences.

3.9. Vulnerable Situations

The results reveal that, when dealing with at-risk minors, volunteers adopt an approach primarily based on trust, empathy and relational closeness, understanding that emotional care is a prerequisite for any academic progress. In this sense, participants emphasise the importance of being attentive to each child’s individual circumstances and responding flexibly to their needs. As one volunteer explains, “there is no single strategy. If you care about him or her, you will always know what to do and how to do it” (E17), highlighting the intuitive and adaptive nature of their interventions.

In practice, volunteers report actively detecting signs of discomfort during class and adjusting the pace, content and dynamics accordingly. This often involves combining playful activities with conversations centred on each child’s personal interests in order to foster motivation and curiosity. For example, participants describe making efforts to “detect signs of discomfort and adapt the lesson to these situations” (E4), even while acknowledging the challenges this entails due to limited training in psychological support.

Furthermore, volunteers tailor their strategies to specific vulnerable profiles. In the case of migrant girls, they emphasise the importance of addressing topics connected to their daily lives and creating safe spaces for dialogue, as illustrated by efforts to “look for personal topics and interests that spark curiosity (…) especially for young women” (E2) and to engage in conversations that connect with their lived experiences (E7). Similarly, some participants note that building trust is particularly relevant in these cases, as “it’s easier to establish direct contact with women; I try to appear trustworthy” (E23). At the same time, volunteers recognise the complexity of understanding individual circumstances, stating that “it is very difficult to understand the individual circumstances of girls” and that support often requires tailored responses (E1).

In addition, when working with minors who show low academic motivation, volunteers adopt flexible methodologies that integrate language learning into playful contexts. For instance, some participants describe incorporating language rules into games to enhance engagement, as in the case of “insert[ing] the rules of the Italian language into the rules of the games available” (E24). These strategies are complemented by continuous reinforcement of small achievements and the use of simple gestures of care—such as encouragement, reassurance and emotional support—to sustain motivation (E8).

However, participants also acknowledge significant constraints, including limited time and a lack of specialised training. As one volunteer notes, “two hours a week doesn’t allow me to do anything other than teach them to speak” (E18), while others explicitly recognise that they are not equipped to deal with complex psychological situations (E4). Despite these limitations, volunteers emphasise that relational closeness and genuine care remain central to the learning process and to the social inclusion of minors.

Finally, in more complex cases, participants report maintaining contact with other professionals and referring minors to specialists when necessary, although such collaboration is not always systematic. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of flexible, empathetic and context-sensitive approaches when working with vulnerable populations, where emotional support and educational intervention are closely interconnected.

3.10. Professional and Personal Learning

Volunteers report experiencing both personal and professional growth through their work with migrant minors. In particular, they highlight the development of key socio-emotional and intercultural competencies, such as active listening, empathy and respect for diverse cultural contexts. As one participant notes, the experience “helped me expand my listening skills and open myself up to new experiences and knowledge” (E4), while others emphasise that “each person is a different world and you have to know how to listen to really help” (E7). Similarly, volunteers recognise having developed greater tolerance and openness, describing how they have learned to “be open to different realities, suspending judgement” (E15).

In this sense, participants underline that working in this context has transformed their perspectives on migration and social responsibility. For example, some describe the experience as “a great wake-up call (…) [that] makes me feel even more responsible towards society” (E12), while others state that it has led them to view migrants with “even more sympathy and human curiosity” (E1). These reflections indicate a process of personal awareness and ethical commitment that goes beyond the immediate educational context.

Moreover, volunteers explain that these lessons are translated into more sensitive and adaptive pedagogical practices. This includes the incorporation of personalised approaches, the avoidance of prejudice and stigma, and the creation of spaces based on respect and dialogue. As one participant reflects, the experience has reinforced the importance of authenticity in teaching, noting that “being a teacher and teaching are not the same thing (…) teaching must also be sincere” (E17). In this regard, relational closeness and mutual respect are seen as central elements of effective educational practice.

Additionally, many participants report transferring the skills acquired through this experience to other areas of their lives and professional activities. For instance, some volunteers apply what they have learned in different contexts, such as working with older adults (E5), while others emphasise the importance of patience, engagement and creativity in responding to diverse learning needs, particularly in complex situations such as working with illiterate minors (E24).

Finally, volunteers highlight the broader meaning of their involvement, describing it as a deeply enriching personal experience that contributes to their understanding of social coexistence and the common good. As one participant explains, this experience “nourishes [them] on a human and existential level” and reinforces the importance of social commitment (E20). Similarly, others stress that the most significant lesson lies in adopting a relational stance based on accompaniment, stating that it is essential to position oneself “not in front of, but alongside the person (…) with an attitude of respect and listening” (E25).

Overall, these findings demonstrate that volunteering in this context not only supports the integration of minors, but also fosters transformative learning processes among volunteers themselves, shaping both their personal development and their professional practice.

4. Discussion

The main objective of this study was to understand the active role played by voluntary agents within the Italian reception system in order to assess how their actions and strategies contribute to the construction of an environment that promotes the autonomy and protagonism of unaccompanied minors in the development of their migration project. In this regard, this collective case study aims to answer the four questions initially posed and detailed below in order to establish the main contributions of this research.

(a) 

What are the main strategies implemented by volunteer agents to facilitate the social and cultural integration of unaccompanied migrant minors?

The findings indicate that the main strategies implemented by volunteer agents for the socio-cultural integration of minors are the creation of a climate of closeness and trust as a starting point for their integration, combining dynamic strategies such as recreational activities, the use of pictograms and contextualised learning in everyday life. In addition, they reinforce autonomy and self-esteem through active listening and recognition of achievements, guide minors towards decent educational and employment opportunities, and promote participation in volunteer and community collaboration initiatives to develop solidarity and encourage mutual learning. Accordingly, volunteering is increasingly recognised as a key element of experiential learning and community participation, which benefits unaccompanied minors (Alamer & Sultan, 2022; Cincalová & Cerná, 2021; Haski-Leventhal et al., 2020; Kifle Mekonen & Adarkwah, 2022). In this regard, social integration has been linked to a sense of belonging, which promotes the psychological well-being of the most vulnerable groups (O’Neil et al., 2023; Xie et al., 2022).

Social integration encompasses feelings of belonging, inclusion, connection, closeness, recognition, and participation among volunteers and minors, which are crucial for the latter’s adaptation to their new socio-cultural environment (Martela et al., 2021; O’Neil et al., 2023; Randall et al., 2022). Along the same lines, Pryce et al. (2019) stated that the strategies implemented by volunteers can influence the improvement of skills related to the educational pathways of migrant adolescents, as well as promote a sense of belonging to the host society and foster greater hope for their future. Furthermore, Kauhanen and Kaukko (2020) revealed that the different forms of support that can be provided in a minor-volunteer relationship, which are mainly emotional support, guidance and positive feedback, among others, must be based on closeness and trust in order to have a deeper impact.

However, in contrast, several studies (B. Brady et al., 2020; Bravo & Santos, 2017) have highlighted that unaccompanied minors often experience difficulties in establishing relationships based on trust and emotional closeness with institutional professionals, as these figures are frequently perceived as representatives of the protection system rather than as individuals personally involved in their daily lives and emotional well-being. In line with these findings, previous research has also pointed to the scarcity of socioeducational and psychosocial resources capable of comprehensively addressing the complex emotional, relational and integration needs of migrant minors. This lack of personalised support may hinder processes of social inclusion, autonomy and emotional stability during their transition to adulthood.

(b) 

How do volunteer agents address the emotional needs of minors who have experienced a traumatic migration process through their psycho-emotional support practices?

The results indicate that emotional and psychological support is developed gradually and respectfully. In other words, before addressing traumatic experiences, a comfortable space is established where minors decide when to talk. In this way, when the opportunity arises, volunteer agents ask open-ended questions that facilitate responses without reactivating trauma. On the other hand, despite creating a pressure-free environment, they recognise their own professional limitations and, if necessary, refer minors to other professionals, thus ensuring comprehensive care.

Taking into account the aforementioned findings, a study conducted by S. T. Brady et al. (2020) pointed out that volunteers are part of a more informal world, so they can take the time to get to know the children, becoming role models for them. In addition, they also help them cope with their situations without focusing solely on academic learning. In this sense, minors can thrive significantly and identify emotional support as a source of support in their daily lives to manage their emotions. Therefore, it is considered relevant to delve deeper into the support provided to minors in the new environment and how this combines with the support of other professionals. Similarly, Alarcón and Prieto-Flores (2021) concluded that volunteer agents become a source of social support where minors can express their emotional distress and receive messages of calm and understanding, as well as advice on when to seek out other professionals for guidance on how to continue their educational journey (Sánchez-Padilla et al., 2025).

However, the political and cultural backgrounds of the country of origin are often different from those of the host country, where these differences can confuse professionals (educators, social workers, etc.) in their care, as they often lack the skills to care for adolescents in a migration context (Benjamin et al., 2022; Fernández-Simo et al., 2022; Oppedal et al., 2022). It is also important to note that unaccompanied girls receive less attention than boys, as they are a less visible group and are forced to conform to a norm of youthful masculinity and, in general, remain silent about their experiences. As a result, both collectively and individually, they are less likely to have their voices heard on issues that affect them (Ekström et al., 2022; Kaukko & Wernesjö, 2017). As they are more invisible, it is worth investigating whether gender differences influence their settlement process, so that services and support can be designed to meet their needs (Brook & Ottemöller, 2020).

In this regard, the agents involved with this population must design socio-educational strategies to ensure children’s well-being in the face of the system’s deficiencies. Furthermore, effective strategies reduce the impact of bureaucratic obstacles, which hinder the transition to adulthood for unaccompanied minors. Therefore, professional support is essential for achieving personal goals (Fernández-Simo et al., 2022).

(c) 

What teaching methods and learning activities do volunteer agents use when teaching migrant children?

When it comes to teaching methods and learning activities, volunteers use flexible methodologies: they employ visual aids (e.g., gestures, images, etc.), fun activities and practical tasks linked to everyday life. On the other hand, they alternate traditional methodologies with active methodologies based on dialogue but always following the approach of the Scuola Penny Wirton. In addition, they incorporate digital resources (mobile applications, music, etc.) and design learning paths once the initial assessment of the minor has been carried out. Therefore, these personalised paths favour both oral and written expression. Similarly, this vulnerable population requires guidance from professionals to get to know themselves, their skills and/or competences and the different opportunities available to them, as well as to achieve their goals and integrate into the host country. Therefore, the construction of personal learning pathways is crucial to promoting their autonomy and social inclusion (Parra-González et al., 2021).

However, research carried out by Alonso-Bello et al. (2020) revealed that responding to the needs of minors involves understanding their life plans, which are oriented towards finding employment to support themselves and their families. Therefore, they should be helped to review their goals and have a clear idea of their objectives in the different areas of their life project, which would encourage their motivation to achieve them. In this case, educational agents must design programmes based on the psychological theory of vocational behaviour, which comes from an epistemological approach called life design, which places greater emphasis on employability, flexibility, emotional intelligence and lifelong learning (Santana et al., 2018). In addition, their social network must be expanded, as it is essential to strengthen young people’s support networks. Their social circle is often limited to professionals and other peers, so by participating in projects that expose them to different activities and environments, they can expand their connections and improve their opportunities for social and labour market integration. These programmes should be aimed at promoting their autonomy and integration, taking a cross-cutting approach to expanding their support network and promoting recreational, sporting and training activities (Pérez & Melendro, 2016).

Consequently, socio-educational projects must offer these young people a solid support network, develop their job skills, encourage reflection on the importance of education, accompany them in the development of their own life projects, and promote their integration into the labour market through employment programmes. It is also essential that these programmes take into account the culture, socio-economic context and level of maturity of minors in order to provide a response that is truly tailored to the reality of this group (Alonso-Bello et al., 2020).

On the other hand, with regard to the use of technology, learning today must be innovative, incorporating critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills, literacy, collaboration, teamwork, decision-making, creative thinking, responsibility and the ability to learn independently (Fernández-Simo et al., 2022). Therefore, paradigm shifts in learning undoubtedly have an impact on the need to modify the capabilities of education professionals. In other words, it is not enough to improve their skills, but also the methods and means that will be used, especially those that make use of information technologies (Gimeno-Monterde & Mendoza-Pérez, 2024; Meloni, 2019). In this regard, adolescents must be trained taking into account the theory of connectivity, as the job skills and abilities of the future are influenced by digitalisation. Thus, these skills are essential for promoting autonomy, social and labour market integration, and success in each stage of education (Ahvenniemi et al., 2017; Lei & Tang, 2019).

(d) 

To what extent do minors become involved and participate in the activities proposed by volunteers, and what motivational mechanisms do volunteers use to strengthen migrant minors’ sense of belonging and self-esteem?

The results have revealed that in order to encourage the participation of minors, volunteers build lessons centred on useful expressions, avoid theoretical overload and alternate learning phases with recreational activities (e.g., board games). Furthermore, they create an atmosphere of trust that encourages minors to share their interests and stories, show them the practical usefulness of learning the language of the host country and obtaining a qualification to access decent employment, and celebrate each goal achieved. Finally, after determining the minors’ initial level, they adjust the pace and tools on an individual basis, ensuring that each minor feels in control of their own learning process. Similarly, studies carried out by Mahieu and Van Caudenberg (2020), Pryce et al. (2019) and Sánchez-Aragón et al. (2021) found that community and group tutoring promotes the social inclusion of vulnerable minors, especially through support networks, collaborative learning, a sense of belonging and a reduction in social isolation. For these vulnerable adolescents, support plays a fundamental role in developing a sense of belonging, social inclusion and new relationships, as well as improving their mental well-being and resilience (Oxman-Martinez & Choi, 2014; Teja & Schonert-Reichl, 2013).

However, while acceptance and belonging among peers can facilitate positive outcomes, discrimination and bullying lead to poor outcomes for newcomers. In contrast to previous studies, Guo et al. (2019) conducted research in which they interviewed 18 refugees to better understand their perspectives on school integration, where the participants’ sense of belonging was greatly diminished due to ongoing harassment and racism from both their peers and professionals (Martín et al., 2016; Vives, 2020). It is therefore essential that professionals provide support to unaccompanied minors so that they can develop and feel a sense of belonging in the spaces where they spend their daily lives, because doing so supports and encourages educational achievement, thus enabling them to have a support network (Sala, 2021).

5. Conclusions

This research highlights the relevance of volunteers in the socio-cultural integration and well-being of unaccompanied minors, particularly through the creation of environments characterised by trust and closeness, as well as the implementation of dynamic methodologies based on play and contextualised learning. Likewise, their psycho-emotional support practices, which are based on active listening, asking open-ended questions and referring to professionals when necessary, allow them to address migration-related trauma in a respectful manner, promoting the creation of broader support networks. Furthermore, flexible teaching methods (visual aids, games, etc.) and motivational mechanisms (recognition of achievements, reinforcement of a sense of belonging and the search for educational and employment opportunities) encourage the autonomy and protagonism of minors in their migration project. In this regard, the findings also reflect the presence of relational and accompaniment practices associated with mentoring approaches, particularly through the establishment of close, individualised and trust-based relationships between volunteers and minors. However, interdisciplinary cooperation remains informal, highlighting the need to establish coordination protocols between volunteers, educators, social workers, psychologists and other professionals in order to provide a comprehensive response. However, this study has limitations stemming from the specific nature of the sample, particularly with regard to its age composition. The predominance of older volunteers may influence the types of practices identified, which could differ in contexts involving younger or less experienced participants. Therefore, it is recommended that the results be interpreted with caution and that direct generalisation to other profiles or socio-educational settings be avoided.

Finally, these findings provide relevant empirical evidence for designing socio-educational policies and interventions that take into account the culture, socio-economic context and maturity of each minor, as well as the need to strengthen their support networks and skills to facilitate their transition to adulthood in an effective manner.

To transform these findings into action, it is essential to create a continuous training programme for volunteers, integrating mentoring approaches with modules on active listening, trauma treatment and intercultural skills; to establish a personalised accompaniment system in which each child has a volunteer reference figure who, through regular sessions, develops and adjusts a learning and socio-cultural adaptation plan in line with their interests and life goals; and establish formal protocols for interdisciplinary coordination between the language school, reception centres, and social and health services, organising monthly meetings and using shared digital tools to coherently articulate tutorial and psychosocial interventions. In another aspect, socio-educational itineraries should be designed that include an educational–tutorial component combining professional training workshops, vocational counselling, and recreational activities, so that the tutor supports the young person at each stage, from literacy to entry into the labour market, promoting their autonomy; integrate flexible teaching approaches (e.g., visual aids, games, and mobile technologies) into accompaniment sessions alternating traditional grammar learning with oral exercises and contextualised practices, to resolve specific doubts and adjust the pace to each participant; using the tutorial and accompaniment space to celebrate achievements through certificates of competence and symbolic events, and encouraging the narration of life stories to give young people back the leading role in their identity and migration project; establishing indicators of success (e.g., number of accompaniment sessions conducted, level of confidence, expansion of social networks, participation in activities, etc.) and documenting progress in a case management system that enables the adaptation of support and ensures continuous improvement; and, finally, integrate accompaniment and mentoring practices as central elements in community awareness campaigns and political agendas, advocating for stable resources for the training of volunteers and the development of protocols that recognise these relational support practices as crucial elements in the social inclusion of unaccompanied minors.