Societal Welfare Implications of Solar and Renewable Energy Deployment: A Systematic Review

Abstract

The deployment of solar and other renewable energy technologies (RETs) plays a central role in the global energy transition and the pursuit of sustainable development. Beyond reducing greenhouse gas emissions, these technologies generate far-reaching societal co-benefits that shape environmental quality, social equity, and economic growth. This study systematically reviews peer-reviewed literature published between 2009 and 2025 to identify, integrate, and assess empirical evidence on how RET deployment contributes to societal welfare. Following the SALSA framework and PRISMA guidelines, 147 studies were selected from Scopus and Web of Science. The evidence reveals a consistent welfare triad: environmental gains (emission and pollution reduction, climate mitigation), social gains (improved health, affordability, energy security, and inclusion), and economic gains (employment and income growth, local development). These benefits are, however, heterogeneous and depend on enabling conditions such as policy stability, financial development, grid integration, innovation capacity, and social acceptance. The review highlights that solar energy, in particular, acts as both an environmental and social catalyst in advancing sustainable welfare outcomes. The findings provide a comprehensive basis for policymakers and researchers seeking to design equitable and welfare-enhancing renewable energy transitions.

1. Introduction

Accelerating the deployment of renewable energy technologies (RETs) is widely regarded as a cornerstone of climate mitigation and sustainable development. Yet the benefits of RETs extend beyond decarbonization: they shape how people live, work, and thrive. We analyze these broader consequences through the lens of societal welfare. Building on contemporary scholarship, we frame welfare across three interdependent dimensions, environmental, social, and economic, to structure how RET deployment can enhance quality of life at scale. In the sections that follow, we apply this lens to synthesize current evidence and identify priorities for future research.

The global policy context makes this agenda urgent. Since the Brundtland Report and successive milestones (UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol, the 2030 Agenda with SDG 7, and the Paris Agreement), governments have tightened decarbonization targets while technological learning and supportive policies have sharply reduced renewable energy costs. According to recent empirical assessments conducted by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) in 2024, along with parallel analysis by the International Energy Agency (IEA), average utility-scale solar PV installed costs have fallen by around 85–90% since 2010, and onshore wind by 50–60%—a transformation driven by technological innovation and economies of scale. These trends have expanded renewable energy’s market share and competitiveness across many markets. Nevertheless, fossil fuels still dominate the global primary energy mix, supplying roughly 80% of total energy in 2023 according to the International Energy Agency, and the pace of transition varies across regions—implying heterogeneous welfare outcomes that depend on governance, finance, infrastructure, and social acceptance. These dynamics motivate a systematic examination of where, how, and to what extent RET deployment translates into tangible welfare gains.

Despite growing attention on renewable energy deployment, three cross-cutting gaps remain in the literature. First, there is an integration gap: existing studies are thematically fragmented, often concentrating on emissions, specific technologies, or policy instruments and, when welfare outcomes (health, energy poverty, affordability, jobs, local development) are considered, they are typically examined separately rather than within a unified welfare framework. Recent reviews note that most research still focuses on a single dimension, such as equity, resilience or sustainability, rather than integrated welfare effects, and therefore call for cross-disciplinary metrics to capture the broader impact of renewable energy transitions [1]. Second, there is an equity and energy-justice gap; only a limited number of studies explicitly link renewable energy deployment to equity, inclusion and social impacts, or to the distribution of benefits and burdens across different social groups, underscoring the need for more work on energy justice as a core component of societal welfare [2,3]. Third, there is a comparability gap: scholars emphasize that social sciences and humanities research is essential to understanding implications for quality of life and progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals, yet evidence on these human outcomes remains limited and insufficiently comparable across contexts [4]. Taken together, these themes indicate a shortage of integrated, equity-sensitive and comparable analyses of how renewable energy deployment shapes the welfare of society—a shortfall that this paper directly addresses by systematically reviewing and synthesizing evidence on the multidimensional welfare effects of renewable energy technologies.

Aim and approach. This study aims to identify, systematically synthesize, and map evidence on the impacts of RET deployment on societal welfare. This research does not treat the welfare implications of renewable energy as a settled conclusion; rather, it examines how the literature conceptualizes and empirically tests this relationship. In doing so, it advances a more nuanced understanding of the multifaceted impacts of renewable energy deployment on societal welfare. This study conducts a systematic literature review and bibliometric mapping of peer-reviewed research published during 2009–2025 to assess the links between RET deployment and societal welfare. Methodologically, we integrate the SALSA framework with PRISMA-guided screening and use Bibliometrix/Biblioshiny in RStudio (version: 2025.09.1+401) to analyze collaboration networks, thematic clusters, and keyword co-occurrence. The final screened corpus comprises 147 studies spanning global, regional, and national contexts, enabling comparative insights across policy and market settings.

Contributions. The paper offers four contributions, two primarily methodological and two substantive. Methodologically, first, it develops a novel conceptual framework that maps RETs to welfare via environmental (GHG and pollution reductions), social (health, energy affordability and poverty, energy security), and economic (employment, income, growth) pathways, providing a structured lens for analyzing welfare effects of the energy transition. Second, it makes a methodological contribution by providing a bibliometric overview of the field’s structure and evolution, systematically mapping how research on RETs and welfare has developed over time. Substantively, third, the paper offers a novel thematic evidence synthesis that brings together dispersed findings to evaluate the magnitude and limitations of reported welfare effects and to examine the roles of policy, finance, technology, and community factors as enabling conditions. Fourth, it advances the literature by proposing a forward-looking research agenda that identifies under-studied regions, distributional outcomes, life-cycle trade-offs, and system integration issues (grids, storage, sector coupling) as key priorities for future work on RETs and societal welfare.

Structure. The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 develops the societal welfare framework and situates RETs within the contemporary energy transition. Section 3 describes data and methods (SALSA/PRISMA; bibliometrics). Section 4 presents the results and discussion, integrating bibliometric findings with thematic evidence across environmental, social, and economic dimensions and interpreting implications, trade-offs, enabling conditions, and limitations. Section 5 concludes with recommendations and directions for future research.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Conceptualizing Societal Welfare

The Until the 1970s, the concept of welfare was primarily associated with material well-being and living standards [5]. Over time, the concept of welfare changed in response to shifting economic conditions and theoretical advances. According to Greve (2008) the term welfare is often linked to the welfare state and has traditionally been treated as a near-synonym for utility, typically associated with income benefits to individuals [6]. However, Greve (2008) emphasizes that our understanding of welfare depends on perspective—whether we view it from an individual or collective standpoint, and within specific cultural and historical contexts [6]. In a broad sense, welfare means the well-being of individuals, families, and the communities. Positive well-being is associated with a comfortable, happy, and healthy life [5,6,7,8].

While welfare originates in the field of economics and is traditionally linked to material prosperity, it is now frequently discussed in connection with well-being and quality of life (QoL), rather than as a strict synonym [5]. Building on Bagdonas (2007, as cited in Krutulienė [5]), well-being emphasizes how people feel and function, focusing on subjective experience. The essence of the well-being concept is the interpretation of a good life, where the main focus is on subjective aspects, and the main measure of a good life is satisfaction [5]. Well-being encompasses various individual aspects of human life, including both economic and psychological well-being [5]. Quality of life, as summarized in

Table 1. Aspects of quality of life.

Aspect	Examples
Objective	Income, health status, housing conditions, access to education
Subjective	Life satisfaction, emotional well-being, self-esteem
Material	Wealth/assets, income, employment
Non-material	Relationships, leisure, sense of security, cultural participation
Individual	Personal health, happiness, emotions
Societal	Social capital, community well-being, political stability

, is commonly defined as a multidimensional construct that integrates objective aspects (such as income, health status, housing conditions and access to education) and subjective aspects (life satisfaction, emotional well-being, self-esteem), material dimensions (wealth/assets, income, employment) and non-material dimensions (relationships, leisure, sense of security, cultural participation), as well as individual (personal health, happiness, emotions) and societal aspects (social capital, community well-being, political stability) [5]. In line with this evolution, this review treats welfare at the societal level as encompassing both objective conditions and subjective experiences.

To evaluate welfare at the collective level, we begin by defining society as the unit of analysis. Society generally refers to individuals living together in organized communities that share common laws, traditions, and values. It is often understood as a large group of people who share a common territory or culture and are subject to the same political authority and prevailing cultural expectations [5,9,10].

Accordingly, we use societal welfare to denote the overall quality of life of society’s members, integrating objective and subjective components. The term societal welfare (also called the welfare of society) refers to the overall quality of life and well-being of a society’s members [11]. This concept comprises two main components: the objective needs of society’s members (external factors such as resources, social structures, and environmental conditions) and the subjective experience of meeting those needs (internal factors—subjective experience, e.g., personal satisfaction and perceived quality of life) [5,6,11]. External factors include material conditions, main activity (employment status), education, health, economic and physical security, political governance, fundamental rights, and the natural and residential environment. Meanwhile, aspects such as overall life experience, leisure time, and social connections reflect internal (subjective) factors of well-being, which depend on personal experience and satisfaction. These aspects are broadly reflected by Stoll et al. [12], who argue that societal welfare is influenced by the economic situation; social relationships among individuals, groups, and the community; health; education and care services; the local environment; and individual characteristics. These components map onto six widely discussed domains of welfare (

Table 2. Domains of welfare and illustrative factors.

Domain	Examples
Economy	Income inequality, social benefits, unemployment, inflation, nature of work, job quality, working hours, indebtedness, commuting
Social relationships & community	Social participation, volunteering, membership in organizations, membership in religious organizations, trust, leadership/governance, marriage and personal relationships, family relationships, having children
Health	Physical health, psychological health, health behaviors, sleep
Education & care	Education, informal care
Local environment	Physical environment, urban spaces and planning, housing (living conditions), urbanization, pollution, crime, transport, traffic, climate
Personal characteristics	Age, gender, ethnicity, genetics, personality, material values

), spanning economic conditions, social relationships, health, education and care, local environment, and personal characteristics.

In our framework, economy aligns predominantly with the economic dimension; social relationships & community, health, education & care, and many of the personal characteristics align with the social dimension; and local environment aligns primarily with the environmental dimension, while recognizing cross-links (e.g., housing spans social and environmental).

While the literature identifies six key domains of societal welfare, for analytical coherence we consolidate them into three overarching dimensions: environmental (needs related to the natural and residential environment), social (relational and institutional needs), and economic (material needs), based on scientific literature [11,12,13,14]. This structure mirrors widely used frameworks in international development (e.g., the OECD Well-Being Framework, UNDP Human Development Reports, and the Social Progress Index), supporting policy relevance and cross-country comparability. We use this tripartite framework to analyze how renewable energy technology deployment relates to societal welfare.

2.2. Renewable Energy

Beginning in the late 20th century, growing scientific consensus on the adverse impacts of climate change and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions led to increased global attention on renewable energy sources. This shift was driven by mounting environmental concerns and catalyzed by a series of landmark international agreements aimed at decarbonizing energy systems and integrating sustainability into development agendas.

The Brundtland Report (“Our Common Future”, 1987) established the foundation of the sustainable development concept, promoting the integration of environmental and energy issues into global policy. Subsequently, the 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the 1997 Kyoto Protocol laid the groundwork for international cooperation on emissions reductions. These developments also indirectly encouraged the transition to cleaner energy sources, with a particular focus on renewables. During this period, academic literature increasingly emphasized the efficiency, scalability, and economic viability of renewable energy technologies [15].

Entering the 21st century, the trajectory of renewable energy development was further reinforced by new international initiatives and political commitments. The UN Global Compact (2000), the establishment of UN-Energy (2004), and the creation of the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) (2009) further reinforced global coordination. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, with SDG 7 emphasizing access to affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy, and the Paris Agreement (2015) accelerated national efforts toward climate neutrality, recognizing renewable energy as a core element of emissions-reduction strategies. At the same time, rapid advancements in materials science, engineering, and digital technologies significantly reduced the costs of solar photovoltaics and wind turbines, enabling large-scale deployment. Economies of scale, technological innovation, and supportive policy frameworks—such as feed-in tariffs, subsidies, and renewable energy mandates—catalyzed widespread adoption [16].

In recent years, the renewable energy sector has expanded rapidly, with many governments setting ambitious targets for its adoption. This momentum has been reinforced by international climate agreements and commitments that encourage countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote green energy as a tool to combat climate change. Growth has been driven not only by policy decisions but also by advances in research aimed at addressing key challenges such as energy storage, grid integration, and the intermittency of renewable resources [17]. Moreover, recent studies emphasize the crucial role of renewable energy in achieving global sustainability goals and mitigating the impacts of climate change [18]. Ongoing research continues to broaden, encompassing emerging areas such as offshore wind energy, concentrated solar power (CSP), advanced biofuels, and green hydrogen [19,20,21,22]. This reflects the continuous evolution of the energy sector, driven by both technological progress and political imperatives.

As shown in the diagram (Figure 1), the structure of global primary energy has changed slowly but steadily over the past two centuries. Until the mid-19th century, the main energy source was traditional biofuels—wood, crop residues, and charcoal. The Industrial Revolution spurred a rapid increase in coal consumption, making it the dominant energy source. In the early 20th century, the energy mix began to diversify, with oil, natural gas, and hydropower included. Since the 1960s, nuclear energy has appeared in the energy balance, while so-called modern renewables such as solar and wind power only began to expand more significantly from the 1980s. As Vaclav Smil notes, historically the transitions between different energy sources have been extremely slow; therefore, today’s imperative to rapidly phase out fossil fuels and shift to low-carbon sources is unprecedented in both its scale and the speed required [23].

Despite this progress, most societies remain highly dependent on non-renewable resources, especially in the energy sector. It is calculated that about 80% of the world’s total energy consumption relies on fossil fuels. With the human population growing and limited resources becoming increasingly scarce, demand for renewable resources is increasing. Renewable resources are considered particularly important because they can substitute for non-renewable or limited resources in energy production [24,25]. In recent years, renewables have not only demonstrated economic competitiveness but have also been recognized as an environmentally friendly, optimal alternative for power generation [26]. Based on the scholarly literature, the exploitation of renewable resources is regarded as one of the most promising pathways for phasing out fossil fuels (e.g., coal, oil) in energy production [27].

Today, renewable energy sources account for a significant and steadily growing share of global primary energy consumption. In 2023, renewable sources accounted for around 14% of total global primary energy consumption (Figure 2), including hydropower, solar, wind, geothermal, marine energy, and modern bioenergy (Renewables 2024 Global Status Report).

The diagram (Figure 2) shows the global shares of energy derived from fossil fuels, renewable resources, and nuclear power. From 1965 to 2023, global primary energy consumption increased substantially, with fossil fuels remaining the dominant energy source. Although the energy mix shifted over this period and the position of renewables strengthened steadily—from a very small share (~6% in 1965) to 14–15% in 2023—fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) still accounted for 81.47% of total primary energy consumption in 2023, despite a modest decline in their share. Over the same period, the share of nuclear energy fluctuated, reaching 3.96% of the global energy mix in 2023. Based on the International Energy Agency’s Global Energy Review 2025, renewable energy sources accounted for the largest share of global supply growth in 2024—38%, surpassing natural gas (28%), coal (15%), oil (11%), and nuclear power (8%). This underscores the strategic role of renewables in meeting the rising global energy demand in recent years and, in line with global decarbonization goals, highlights efforts to increase their share, thereby reducing dependence on fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions.

In the electricity sector, the contribution of renewable energy is more clearly defined. In 2024, about 32% of the world’s electricity was generated from renewable energy sources. Meanwhile, the global power mix is undergoing fundamental change, driven by technological advances, climate-mitigation policies, and evolving demand patterns. Over 2000–2024, one of the most striking trends is the rapid expansion of wind and solar power. As shown in Figure 3, the share of wind and solar in global electricity rose from just 0.21% in 2000 to 15.0% in 2024, driven by substantial investment and policy incentives. This growth has accounted for most new power-generation capacity in recent years. Meanwhile, hydropower’s share has declined slightly due to environmental constraints, particularly drought in regions such as China [28]. Other renewable sources, such as geothermal, ocean energy, and modern biomass, remain small in the global market but contribute to the diversification and resilience of the energy system. Over the same period, the share of fossil fuels in electricity generation fell from 68% in 2007 to 59% in 2024, indicating a long-term structural shift. Nuclear power’s share also decreased, from around 17% in 2000 to less than 9% in 2024, largely due to limited new construction and public opposition following incidents such as the Fukushima disaster in 2011.

In summary, the period 2000–2024 marks a decisive shift toward cleaner and more diversified energy systems. Although fossil fuels remain dominant, the accelerating deployment of renewables, especially wind and solar, has transformed global electricity generation. Policy commitments, technological breakthroughs, and market dynamics together reinforce this transformation, laying the groundwork for the continued development of sustainable energy systems.

3. Materials and Methods

We used a two-stage approach. First, a systematic literature review was carried out following the SALSA methodology to ensure a transparent, reproducible process for searching, appraising, synthesizing, and analyzing relevant studies. Second, a bibliometric analysis was performed in RStudio (version: 2025.09.1+401) using the Bibliometrix package to map the included literature—examining country collaboration patterns, thematic clusters, and keyword co-occurrence networks.

3.1. SALSA Methodology

The SALSA method is a well-established framework for organizing literature research and analysis through four key stages: systematic search, critical appraisal, synthesis of findings and detailed analysis [29,30]. This approach is valued for its ability to ensure methodological precision and completeness in identifying, evaluating, and systematizing literature [31,32,33]. The SALSA structure helps ensure that each stage (searching, evaluating, synthesizing, and analyzing literature) is carried out systematically and transparently, which is essential for high-quality reporting [34]. The SALSA framework is often cited as establishing the necessary order and strictness of systematic reviews, clearly defining each stage [31].

Table 3. Application of the SALSA framework to studies on RET deployment and societal welfare.

Stage	Description
Search	Main steps: keywords identification; search database. Research scope: studies on renewable energy technology (RET) deployment and societal welfare.
Appraisal	Main steps: title/abstract/full text screening and article selection using PRISMA inclusion/exclusion criteria.
Synthesis	Main steps: data extraction and categorization.
Analysis	Main steps: analysis of the data, result comparison and conclusions.

summarizes how the four stages of SALSA were implemented in this study.

3.2. Integration with PRISMA

The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) statement is frequently used alongside SALSA to enhance the consistency, validity and completeness of systematic reviews [31,32,33]. In this study, we adhered to the PRISMA Statement, which ensured consistency and comprehensiveness throughout the investigation and, through its standardized reporting protocol, supported transparency and reproducibility. Consistent with prior work, the use of the PRISMA framework improves the validity and completeness of systematic reviews, with studies indicating that adherence to PRISMA enhances accuracy and completeness across disciplines [31,35,36].

The research process began with defining the study scope and selecting appropriate keywords for the database search. The literature review was conducted using the Web of Science and Scopus databases, combining topics such as “renewable energy”, “renewable energy technology”, “deployment”, “adoption” and “diffusion” with terms such as “societal welfare”, “welfare”, “well-being” and “quality of life”. To ensure comprehensive coverage, the search was carried out across all relevant categories within the selected databases.

The retrieved documents were assessed following PRISMA guidelines for publication selection. Inclusion criteria required that: (i) the specified keywords appear in the title, abstract or keyword section; (ii) the article is published in a peer-reviewed academic journal; and (iii) the study examines the deployment of renewable energy technologies and their connection to societal welfare, either in general or through specific economic, social or environmental dimensions. Exclusion criteria included conference proceedings, editorials, texts not published in English (unless a full translation was available), studies that did not constitute primary empirical research and works that did not address the relationship between renewable energy technologies and welfare. At the full-text stage, articles were mainly excluded because they did not focus on RET deployment, did not include explicit welfare outcomes, or did not report primary empirical findings. As exclusion reasons were often overlapping and not consistently assigned to a single category, we report only the total number of full-text exclusions in

Table 4. Summary of study selection.

Stages	Number
Records identified (Web of Science + Scopus)	2430
Duplicate records removed	780
Records screened (title/abstract)	1650
Full-text articles assessed for eligibility	290
Studies included in the review	147

and describe the main reasons qualitatively in the text. The overall selection process, including the number of records at each stage, is depicted in the PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 4).

Overall, 2430 records (2009–2025) were identified across Web of Science and Scopus. After removing 780 duplicates, 1650 records were screened by title and abstract; 290 full texts were assessed for eligibility; and 147 studies were finally included in the review (Figure 4; Table 4).

3.3. Bibliometric Methods (Bibliometrix/Biblioshiny)

We conducted the bibliometric component in RStudio (version: 2025.09.1 + 401) using Bibliometrix (with the Biblioshiny), including data import and standardization from Web of Science and Scopus. Bibliometrix is a widely used open-source RStudio (version: 2025.09.1+401)package for constructing bibliometric networks and mapping science; it supports co-authorship, citation and co-citation, bibliographic coupling, keyword co-occurrence and thematic evolution, providing insights into the structure and evolution of research fields [37]. Biblioshiny is a graphical interface for Bibliometrix that facilitates data import (WoS/Scopus), analysis, and visualization without sacrificing the ability to script all steps in RStudio, thus ensuring auditability. New methodological descriptions emphasize that Biblioshiny, together with Bibliometrix, provides a convenient way to perform a complete bibliometric analysis [38].

In this research, the use of Bibliometrix/Biblioshiny strengthens the methodology, as bibliometric mapping broadens the analysis of the literature. Traditional review methods often rely on qualitative synthesis and may therefore overlook macro-trends. Bibliometrix provides a systematic way to map research trends, contributions, and emerging topics (e.g., co-citation, bibliographic linking, topic evolution) by providing structured visualizations and quantitative indicators [37]. The integration of quantitative and qualitative methods (e.g., centrality, overall strength of connections), performance indicators (citation impact) and thematic development analysis provides a quantitative basis that complements qualitative assessment. This mixed method allows for an intuitive understanding of the interrelationships between economic, environmental, energy, technological, political, regulatory, regional and social factors that determine the deployment of renewable energy sources and its impact on welfare.

Within this framework, the study makes three contributions. First, bibliometric evidence traces how research on renewable energy technology implementation and societal welfare has evolved and which directions dominate. Second, a quantitatively grounded synthesis linking key determinants (economic, environmental, energy, technological, political, regulatory, regional and social) to welfare outcomes (employment, inclusion, health, quality of life) provides a multidimensional picture and addresses gaps in prior reviews. Third, by situating findings within the field’s development, the bibliometric review identifies underexplored niches for future research. This approach aligns with methodological guidance on standardizing and cleaning WoS/Scopus data using Bibliometrix/Biblioshiny [39].

4. Results and Discussion

Our analysis is grounded in an extensive body of literature, ensuring that findings are based on empirical evidence drawn from diverse regional and economic contexts. By employing keyword co-occurrence analysis, citation network mapping, and research clustering, we offer a data-driven, multidimensional perspective on the interplay of various determinants influencing the transition toward renewable energy. Using the SALSA method, we systematically reviewed 147 peer-reviewed articles published between 2009 and 2025. These studies examine different historical periods, beginning in the 1990s and extending into projections for the 2030s and 2040s. The geographical scope of the studies ranges from single-country analyses to global panels, encompassing OECD, EU, MENA, Sub-Saharan African, and ASEAN countries (Figure 5).

Global or multi-country studies constitute 58.5% of the sample, providing comparative insights into the determinants and impacts of renewable energy across diverse policy and market contexts. Research focused specifically on OECD countries accounts for 4.1%, while studies on European countries make up 8.8%, reflecting ongoing interest in EU-level policy frameworks. At the national level, China and the United States are represented by 5.4% and 4.8% of the sample, respectively. Additional Asian contexts include India, Japan, and ASEAN countries, each comprising 0.7%. Although coverage of developing regions is present, it remains comparatively limited: Africa (in any form) represents 6.1%, and the MENA region 2.0%. Studies focused on the G7 account for 1.4%. The remaining 6.8% comprises single-country or small-bloc cases—Brazil, Denmark, Ghana, Kenya, Poland, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, and Thailand. Overall, the geographical distribution indicates a dominant focus on cross-regional and global comparisons, enabling the identification of broader patterns in renewable energy deployment and its implications for societal welfare. The country collaboration map further indicates that research activity is concentrated in several major hubs, particularly China, the United States, and European countries, which also demonstrate the strongest international co-authorship links. Other regions are represented to a lesser extent, reflecting more limited integration into collaborative research networks.

Figure 5 presents the country collaboration map, showing that research activity is concentrated in major hubs such as China, the United States, and Europe, with strong international co-authorship links, while other regions appear less represented (darker blue = more co-authorships; lighter blue = fewer; grey = no links; orange lines depict international co-authorship ties; thicker/denser lines indicate stronger links).

Figure 6 presents trend topics, showing the evolution of research focus in renewable energy deployment. Earlier studies emphasized methodological and economic aspects (e.g., carbon, social cost, causal relationships), while later work increasingly addressed environmental policy themes (e.g., renewable energy consumption, emissions, clean-energy policies). In the most recent period, the literature has expanded toward societal welfare dimensions, with growing attention to energy poverty, health outcomes, and community benefits. This progression indicates a broadening of the research agenda from technical and environmental determinants toward wider economic and social impacts.

While the thematic distribution highlights which welfare outcomes have received the greatest attention, keyword co-occurrence analysis provides additional insight into how these themes are conceptually structured within the literature. Using the Bibliometrix/Biblioshiny package in R, we constructed a keyword co-occurrence network based on all keywords from the merged dataset (843 unique terms), employing full counting and a minimum occurrence threshold of three; 129 high-frequency keywords met this criterion and were retained in the map. The resulting co-occurrence network displays several well-defined clusters and dense connections among keywords, indicating a modular thematic structure with non-trivial connectivity across research areas. Figure 7 and Figure 8 together illustrate the conceptual and thematic structure of the literature on renewable energy deployment and its societal welfare implications. The co-occurrence network (Figure 7) highlights how research themes cluster around central concepts such as renewable energy, CO₂ emissions, consumption, economic growth and energy poverty, which form the backbone of the field and link multiple thematic areas. One major cluster is centered on environmental and climate concepts (e.g., CO₂ emissions, air pollution, climate change), a second on economic and financial themes (e.g., economic growth, financial development, foreign direct investment), a third on policy and technology (e.g., renewable energy sources, energy policy, solar-energy, wind energy, storage), and a fourth on social and welfare-related topics (e.g., energy poverty, employment, inequality, health). The density map (Figure 8) complements this structural view by showing where research attention is most concentrated: the darkest areas cluster around renewable energy, CO₂ emissions and consumption, with notable intensity for economic growth, energy poverty and energy policy. This pattern confirms that studies linking renewable energy deployment to societal welfare are anchored at the intersection of environmental, economic and social concerns, with energy poverty and health emerging as increasingly prominent themes.

Taken together, Figure 7 and Figure 8 demonstrate that renewable energy deployment is positioned at the crossroads of multiple research domains, and that its contribution to societal welfare is increasingly conceptualized not only through decarbonization, but also via economic development, social inclusion and public health benefits, contingent on enabling governance, finance and technological conditions.

To complement this temporal perspective (Figure 6), the distribution of thematic orientations across the 147 studies (Figure 9) highlights which welfare dimensions have received the most attention. The literature is led by GHG reductions/decarbonization (21.1%) and energy poverty (21.1%), reflecting parallel emphases on climate mitigation and energy access/affordability. Health outcomes (14.7%) and local economic development (12.8%) form the next largest shares, followed by macroeconomic growth (12.8%). Air and water quality (9.2%) captures local pollutant abatement beyond carbon, while labor-market evidence appears in employment impacts (4.6%); energy security (3.7%) is comparatively underrepresented despite policy salience. Overall, RET deployment is associated with environmental gains (lower GHGs and local pollutants with health benefits), social improvements (reduced energy poverty and better access), and economic dividends (growth and local development). The magnitude and consistency of these welfare effects depend on enabling conditions—stable policy, grid integration and storage, finance, innovation capacity and community participation.

4.1. Linking Renewable Energy Technology Deployment to Societal Welfare: Environmental Benefits

4.1.1. Reduction in Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions

Renewable energy deployment across power, heating, and integrated systems is consistently linked to significant reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, improved air and water quality, and broader climate change mitigation. Numerous empirical and modeling studies consistently demonstrate that expanding the use of renewable energy sources reduces ecological footprints [40] and significantly lowers greenhouse gas emissions in both developed and developing countries [41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60]. Scenario modeling in countries such as Ghana and Thailand suggests that increasing the share of renewables in the energy mix could reduce cumulative emissions by up to 30% by 2030 [42,61]. Globally, projections indicate that renewables could meet up to two-thirds of total energy demand by 2050, enabling the majority of emissions reductions required to limit global warming to below 2 °C [47,48,49]. The primary emissions-reducing mechanism of renewables is the displacement of fossil fuel-based electricity generation, particularly within the power sector [45,47,62,63]. Further emissions reductions are achievable through the integration of renewable energy with storage systems, electrification of transport and industry, and sector coupling strategies [48,61,64,65]. Moreover, life cycle assessments consistently demonstrate that renewable energy technologies, accounting for manufacturing, installation, and decommissioning, yield significantly lower GHG footprints than conventional energy sources [66,67,68]. To consolidate these findings,

Table 5. Key findings and support evidence identified in these papers.

Key Findings	Explanation	References
Renewable energy deployment leads to significant reductions in GHG emissions	Supported by global, regional, and sectoral studies using robust modeling and empirical data	[41,42,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,55,56,57,60,61,63,66,67,68,69,70]
Policy frameworks and financial development are critical for effective deployment and emissions reduction	Multiple cross-country and econometric studies show strong enabling effects	[41,69,71,72]
Integration with storage, electrification, and sector coupling amplifies emissions reductions	Scenario and life cycle analyses demonstrate synergistic effects	[48,61,64,65]
Local and sectoral challenges (e.g., intermittency, land use) can limit or complicate benefits	Some studies report region-specific or technology-specific limitations	[64,73,74]
Social acceptance and governance influence deployment rates and outcomes	Social science and policy studies highlight these as key drivers	[70,74]
Negative local impacts or rebound effects may occur if not managed	Limited but notable evidence of local trade-offs or unintended consequences	[73,75]

synthesizes the main key finding in the literature on renewable energy deployment and GHG emissions.

4.1.2. Improved Air and Water Quality

The deployment of renewable energy also contributes to substantial improvements in air quality by reducing emissions of pollutants such as sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_X), carbon monoxide (CO), and fine particulate matter (PM2.5). For example, China’s renewable heating policy led to reductions of SO₂ by 28.3%, CO by 7.6%, NO₂ by 5.7%, and PM2.5 by 7.2% in targeted regions [76]. Moreover, large-scale adoption of renewables in China is projected to avert 0.6 million premature deaths and 151 million cases of morbidity by 2050 [77]. In the United States, renewable portfolio standards and the growing penetration of solar and wind energy have delivered billions of dollars in health-related benefits due to improved air quality, particularly in coal-dependent regions [78,79,80]. Similar outcomes are observed in other industrialized and emerging economies, with the latter often realizing greater health gains per unit of renewable energy deployed [81,82,83]. Beyond air quality, renewable energy deployment offers notable benefits for water resources. Compared to fossil fuel-based power generation, renewables significantly reduce water use and pollution. In the U.S., for example, renewable portfolio standards have been linked not only to improved air quality but also to reduced water consumption an especially critical advantage in water-scarce regions [79]. Furthermore, integrating renewable energy into desalination and water treatment systems can enhance water sustainability and lower the environmental footprint of these processes [84]. To consolidate these findings,

Table 6. Key findings and support evidence identified in these papers.

Key Findings	Explanation	References
Renewable energy deployment significantly reduces air pollutants (SO2, NOX, PM2.5, CO)	Multiple large-scale, multi-country studies and policy analyses show consistent, significant reductions in key pollutants.	[76,77,78,79,80,81,82]
Health and economic co-benefits of renewable energy often exceed policy costs	Monetized health benefits and reduced disease burden are well-documented and frequently surpass implementation costs.	[77,78,79,80]
Water quality and resource use improve with renewable energy adoption	Studies show reduced water use and pollution, especially in the power sector and desalination.	[79,84]
Benefits are regionally variable and depend on baseline pollution and policy context	Regional analyses and modeling show heterogeneity in benefits, with greatest gains in coal-dependent and polluted areas.	[77,78,80,81]
Policy integration, R&D, and governance are critical for maximizing benefits	Empirical and review studies highlight the moderating role of policy, investment, and governance.	[85,86,87,88]
Some renewable energy deployments may have unintended or limited effects on certain pollutants	Isolated studies note increases in N2O or limited reductions in CO/ozone, depending on context and technology.	[88,89,90]

synthesizes the main evidence on air and water quality benefits of renewable energy.

4.1.3. Barriers and Challenges

Policy frameworks, financial development and governance are critical enablers of renewable energy deployment and its associated climate benefits. Countries that combine strong policy support with mature financial markets tend to experience faster growth and greater emissions reductions. Additionally, social acceptance, public perception and institutional trust significantly influence deployment rates and effectiveness [41,69,71,72,74]. The scale of environmental and welfare gains varies across regions, technologies and policy contexts. These benefits are generally most pronounced in areas with high baseline pollution and coal dependence, particularly where policy integration, R&D investment and robust governance enable the effective translation of capacity additions into tangible outcomes [78,80,85,86,87,88].

At the same time, deployment faces challenges and potential externalities—including intermittency, land-use and biodiversity impacts, and the need for grid modernization and storage. Some studies note that renewables can have localized environmental impacts, such as land-use conflicts and resource consumption, necessitating careful planning and regulation [91,92]. Likewise, although coupling renewable energy with desalination and water-treatment systems can reduce the carbon and air-pollution footprint of water supply, desalination itself is associated with environmental externalities, including high energy intensity, brine and chemical discharges and potential impacts on marine and coastal ecosystems [84]. These issues highlight the importance of lifecycle assessment and integrated planning when evaluating the net environmental effects of RET deployment. More broadly, economic constraints, technological limitations, regional disparities and potential rebound or localized negative effects can undermine overall effectiveness if not managed proactively [64,73,77]. Aligning policy, finance, technology and social legitimacy therefore remains essential to maximize the benefits of renewable energy while mitigating its associated risks.

4.2. Linking Renewable Energy Technology Deployment to Societal Welfare: Social Benefits

4.2.1. Health Outcomes

Building on the air- and water-quality improvements documented above, the transition to renewable energy is consistently associated with measurable gains in public health. As shown in Section 4.1.1, China’s renewable heating policy not only reduced SO₂ by 28.3%, CO by 7.6%, NO₂ by 5.7% and PM_2.5 by 7.2% in targeted regions, but large-scale adoption of renewables is also projected to avert around 0.6 million premature deaths and 151 million cases of morbidity by 2050 [76,77]. In the United States, renewable portfolio standards and the expansion of wind and solar have generated billions of dollars in health-related benefits through air-quality improvements, particularly in coal-dependent regions [78,79,80]. Similar patterns are reported in other industrialized and emerging economies, where renewable energy deployment reduces exposure to fine particulate matter (PM_2.5), nitrogen oxides (NO_X) and sulfur oxides (SO_X) from fossil fuel combustion, leading to fewer respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular events and premature deaths [77,78,90,93,94,95,96,97,98,99]. In sub-Saharan Africa and the MENA region, renewable energy adoption has been linked to higher life expectancy and significant reductions in maternal and under-five mortality [100,101]. Several studies also quantify important economic co-benefits of these health improvements, including lower healthcare expenditures and productivity gains due to fewer work-loss days. In some U.S. renewable portfolio standard scenarios, monetized health benefits are estimated at about USD 97 billion and often exceed policy implementation costs, indicating that health gains from renewable energy deployment can be strongly cost-effective from a societal perspective [77,78,79,80]. Health gains tend to be largest in areas with high coal dependence, high population density and severe baseline pollution, while weaker or non-significant associations observed in parts of West Africa and Europe suggest that complementary policies and infrastructure are needed to fully realize these benefits [77,90,100,101,102,103,104]. Extensive evidence also confirms that continued reliance on non-renewable energy sources poses substantial health risks by driving air pollution and climate change empirical studies have reported positive correlations between fossil fuel consumption and mortality [105,106,107]. Taken together, these quantitative findings indicate that renewable energy deployment delivers not only environmental improvements but also sizeable public health and economic co-benefits, reinforcing the close interdependence between environmental protection, renewable energy and health as core dimensions of sustainable development [95,96,97,98,99,108,109].

To consolidate these results,

Table 7. Key findings and support evidence identified in these papers.

Key Findings	Explanation	References
Renewable energy deployment reduces air pollution and improves health outcomes	Multiple large-scale studies and reviews show consistent reductions in mortality and morbidity linked to air quality improvements	[77,78,80,90,93,94,100,101]
Health co-benefits of renewables often exceed the cost of deployment	Monetized health benefits (e.g., avoided deaths, reduced healthcare costs) frequently surpass levelized cost of renewables	[77,78,80]
Benefits are greatest in regions with high coal dependence and population density	Regional modeling and empirical studies show higher benefits where fossil fuel displacement is largest	[77,78,80]
Direct causal links between renewables and health can be confounded by social/policy factors	Some studies find weak or non-significant associations when controlling for other variables	[102,103,104]
Literature on health co-benefits is regionally concentrated and limited in developing countries	Systematic reviews note scarcity of studies outside US/Europe; developing regions understudied	[90,102]
Renewable energy alone cannot fully offset negative health impacts of economic growth	Some studies show economic growth can still drive environmental degradation despite renewables	[102,110]

synthesizes the key findings in the literature on renewable energy deployment and associated health benefits.

Beyond environmental protection and health improvements, renewable energy deployment is strongly associated with reduced energy poverty, enhanced energy security, and the provision of clean, affordable energy.

4.2.2. Clean and Affordable Energy

The affordability of renewable energy has improved significantly over the past decade, with large-scale adoption often leading to declining energy costs [111,112,113,114]. While transitional price increases may occur in the early stages of deployment, long-term trends point to renewables as increasingly competitive compared to fossil fuels. This affordability dimension links directly to energy justice, as access to clean and modern energy services is essential for reducing inequality and improving quality of life [88,115,116,117]. Scientists increasingly frame the relationship between renewable energy and affordability as part of broader analyses of social equity and energy justice. By lowering energy costs and ensuring access to clean energy, renewable technologies can help protect vulnerable populations while supporting the global transition to sustainable energy systems [51,70,87,117,118,119].

4.2.3. Energy Poverty

Renewable energy plays a critical role in alleviating energy poverty by expanding access to modern, reliable, and affordable energy services. Distributed generation and community-led initiatives are particularly effective in improving electricity access in rural and low-income areas [113,118,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133]. Solar and hydropower are most often identified as the most effective technologies for reducing energy poverty due to their scalability and cost-effectiveness [51,120,121,127,132]. Researchers who have studied the impact of renewable energy development on energy poverty have concluded that renewable energy can help reduce energy poverty [98,134,135,136]. For instance, Zhao et al. [135] demonstrate that the development of renewable energy and improvements in energy efficiency are key drivers in alleviating poverty. Similarly, Wang, Xiao, and Bai [134], confirm that increased access to renewables supports poverty alleviation efforts in both urban and rural contexts. However, Bai et al. [137] argue that while progress has been made, the renewable energy needs of rural populations in developing countries remain unmet due to infrastructural, economic, and policy-related barriers. Furthermore, the absence of a universally accepted metric for measuring energy poverty hinders effective evaluation of the relationship between renewable energy access and broader social welfare outcomes.

4.2.4. Energy Security

Beyond poverty alleviation, renewable energy strengthens energy security by diversifying supply sources, reducing dependence on fossil fuel imports, and increasing the resilience of national energy systems [117,119,129,138,139,140]. Unlike fossil fuels, which are unevenly distributed and subject to geopolitical risks [54,141,142], renewables can be harnessed locally, reducing vulnerability to external supply shocks. Empirical evidence confirms that investments in renewables improve energy availability, accessibility, and affordability. Studies from Norway, India, and South Africa show that renewable energy expansion strengthens the reliability of national grids and enhances energy independence [117,138,139,143]. According to Aldakhil et al. [144], renewable energy simultaneously addresses two key challenges: reducing harmful emissions to achieve carbon neutrality and improving energy security by ensuring a more stable and sustainable energy supply.

To consolidate these findings,

Table 8. Key findings and support evidence identified in these papers.

Key Findings	Explanation	References
Renewable energy deployment reduces energy poverty and improves energy security	Strong empirical evidence across multiple regions and income levels	[111,113,115,118,120,121,124,129,131,132,133,138]
Early-stage renewable deployment can temporarily increase energy poverty via higher prices	Observed in EU and some developing regions; effect diminishes as renewables mature	[111,112,113,114]
Solar and hydropower are most effective for rural energy poverty alleviation	Cost, scalability, and maintenance advantages in rural/remote areas	[51,120,121,127,132]
Governance quality and policy support are critical for maximizing benefits	Policy, regulatory, and institutional factors mediate outcomes	[74,111,112,113,114,115,145,146,147,148]
Barriers such as high capital costs and regulatory challenges persist	Frequently cited as obstacles to rapid deployment	[74,111,112,113,114,140,145,147]
In some contexts, renewables have not yet reduced energy poverty	Mixed or null findings in certain EU countries and early transition phases	[111,112,114]

synthesizes the key insights from the literature on renewable energy deployment in relation to energy poverty, energy security, and the provision of clean, affordable energy.

4.2.5. Barriers and Challenges

While the majority of studies report positive associations between renewable energy deployment and improvements in health, energy access, and security, several important limitations remain. Some research suggests that the direct causal relationship between renewable energy and health outcomes can be confounded by other factors, including economic growth, healthcare expenditures, and policy environments [102,103,104]. Moreover, the literature on health co-benefits remains relatively scarce and geographically uneven, with developing countries particularly understudied [90,102]. Beyond evidence gaps, practical barriers can constrain the effectiveness of renewable energy transitions. High initial capital costs, regulatory and institutional challenges, and the risk of higher energy prices during early transition phases are frequently cited as obstacles [74,111,112,113,114,140,145,147]. The extent to which renewable energy alleviates energy poverty and strengthens energy security is also highly context-dependent. Governance quality, policy integration, and social acceptance emerge as critical enablers that determine whether capacity additions translate into tangible social and developmental outcomes [74,111,112,113,114,115,145,146,148]. Taken together, these findings indicate that while renewable energy offers substantial environmental, health, and social benefits, realizing its full potential depends on addressing methodological gaps, reducing economic and institutional barriers, and ensuring supportive governance frameworks.

4.3. Linking Renewable Energy Technology Deployment to Societal Welfare: Economic Benefits

In addition to environmental and social benefits, renewable energy deployment has wide-ranging economic implications. By creating jobs, stimulating local development, and supporting income growth, renewables contribute not only to energy access and security but also to broader patterns of economic transformation. These impacts are increasingly documented across both developed and developing contexts, underscoring the role of renewable energy as a driver of sustainable economic growth.

4.3.1. Macroeconomic Growth

Renewable energy technologies are increasingly recognized as engines of economic growth, contributing to improvements in GDP and household income. Empirical evidence confirms a positive relationship between renewable energy consumption and key economic indicators, including total GDP, GDP per capita, and annual household income in both rural and urban contexts [52,53,149,150,151]. In many studies, GDP is treated as a comprehensive indicator of a population’s overall economic well-being [152,153,154].

4.3.2. Employment Impacts

A major pathway for these macroeconomic gains is job creation. Renewable energy deployment generates employment across the energy value chain—from construction and installation to operations, maintenance, and supply-chain activities [74,88,111,113,114,115,117,145,146,155,156,157,158,159]. The solar and wind sectors exhibit particularly high job multipliers, with solar often generating more local employment opportunities than wind [160,161,162]. Projections suggest that by 2050, millions of new jobs could be created globally, especially when combined with hybrid systems and storage technologies [47,157,163]. However, researchers caution that the durability and quality of these jobs vary depending on technology type, project size, and policy environment [160,164].

4.3.3. Local Economic Development

At the local level, renewable energy projects stimulate economic development through higher household incomes, lease payments to landowners, and increased tax revenues for local governments [155,165,166,167]. Community ownership models and innovative financing mechanisms can amplify these benefits, particularly in rural and low-income regions. Evidence from Europe, the United States, and developing countries shows that while the economic impacts of renewables are generally positive, their magnitude depends heavily on project size, local content, and policy support [155,161,166]. Policies that foster innovation, local production, and fair access to opportunities enhance the distribution of economic benefits [83,168,169]. To consolidate these findings,

Table 9. Key findings and support evidence identified in these papers.

Key Findings	Explanation	References
Renewable energy deployment leads to net job creation	Multiple systematic reviews and empirical studies show positive net employment effects, especially in solar and wind sectors	[143,161,162,164,170,171,172]
Local economic development and income growth are positively impacted by renewables	Case studies and panel data analyses demonstrate increased local incomes, tax revenues, and public spending	[155,165,166,167,173]
Economic benefits vary by region, sector, and policy environment	Regional and sectoral analyses reveal heterogeneity in outcomes, with higher gains in supportive contexts	[45,56,117,143,160,162,164,171,174,175]
Community ownership and innovative financing enhance local benefits	Empirical evidence shows greater local retention of benefits with community models	[167]
Job quality, duration, and distribution can be uneven	Some studies report modest or short-term job gains, with challenges in retaining jobs locally	[160,164,165,167]
In some cases, renewable deployment may not significantly increase local employment	Certain studies find minor or no aggregate employment effects, especially in mature or capital-intensive projects	[165,167,176]

synthesizes the key findings in the literature on renewable energy deployment and its economic implications.

4.3.4. Barriers and Challenges

The economic benefits of renewable energy are not uniform across regions or sectors. High-growth effects are most evident in areas with abundant renewable resources and supportive policy environments [45,56,117,143,171,172,173,174,175]. In developing countries, the impact on growth and employment can be even more pronounced, though persistent challenges such as energy poverty and limited infrastructure often constrain outcomes [117,159,174]. Sectoral analyses further reveal important differences: manufacturing benefits are more evident in middle-income economies, while gains in services are stronger in high-income economies [175]. These variations underscore the importance of enabling conditions. Supportive policies, financial development, technological innovation, and strong institutional frameworks are critical for maximizing the economic benefits of renewable energy [56,69,117,156,170,177,178,179,180]. Conversely, barriers such as high upfront investment costs, shortages of skilled labor, and regulatory hurdles can restrict the scale of positive impacts. Targeted interventions, ranging from skills training and financial incentives to regulatory reform, can enhance job creation, foster innovation, and strengthen local economic development [71,74,148,181].

4.4. Mapping Renewables to Societal Welfare

The bibliometric results indicate that renewable energy technology (RET) deployment advances societal welfare through three reinforcing dimensions: environmental, social, and economic, with interactions summarized in Figure 10 (pathways) and synthesized as a “welfare triad” in Figure 11. Keyword co-occurrence mapping corroborates the field’s interdisciplinarity, showing close interconnections among environmental, economic, and social themes. Table 10 summarizes how RET deployment contributes to each welfare dimension in the conceptual framework. Empirically, this conclusion rests on a systematic synthesis of peer-reviewed studies (2009–2025) spanning global and regional panels and national cases, with evidence concentrated in cross-country analyses and major research hubs in China, the United States, and Europe.

Building on the pathway map in Figure 10 and the evidence synthesis in Table 10, Figure 11 integrates these results as a welfare triad: environmental gains (lower emissions and climate risks; cleaner air and water), social gains (better health; improved energy affordability, equity, and inclusion; reduced energy poverty; stronger energy security), and economic gains (job creation, household income, and macroeconomic growth) collectively advance societal welfare.

Extensive evidence underscores the critical role of renewable energy in climate mitigation and sustainable development, with multifaceted benefits for societal welfare (see Figure 10 and Table 10). Empirically, renewable energy deployment lowers emissions and climate risks while improving air and water quality (environmental); it strengthens health outcomes, boosts energy affordability, social equity, and inclusion, reduces energy poverty, and enhances energy security (social); and it drives job creation, household income gains, and broader macroeconomic growth (economic) [41,42,47,48,76,77,118,119,120,153,165,170,182,183,184,185]. Collectively, these pathways advance improved societal welfare.

Figure 10 illustrates the pathways through which renewable energy deployment can influence environmental, social, and economic outcomes that, taken together, contribute to societal welfare.

Table 10 summarizes how the deployment of renewable energy contributes to each of the three main dimensions of societal welfare identified in the conceptual framework.

Table 10. Mapping renewable energy deployment to societal welfare dimensions.

Societal Welfare Dimension	Key Renewable Energy Technologies Impact Areas	Representative Findings	References
Environmental welfare	GHG emission reduction	Strong evidence that RETs cut CO2 emissions across regions and are pivotal for meeting climate targets.	[47,49,55]
	Air and water quality	Decreased air pollution (e.g., SO2, NOX) and improved water-use efficiency with reduced contamination risks.	[76,77,84]
	Climate mitigation	RETs enable deep decarbonization in power, transport, and industry, with comparatively low life-cycle emissions, thereby mitigating climate change.	[48,66,67,68]
Social welfare	Health outcomes	Reduced PM2.5 and co-pollutants decrease respiratory and cardiovascular illness; prevent premature deaths.	[77,78,80,183]
	Energy affordability, social equity and inclusion	Long-term system and technology cost reductions; early transition phases may see temporary price increases, but mature RET mixes lower average costs. By improving access and affordability, RETs advance energy justice and reduce inequality; outcomes remain contingent on governance quality	[70,111,113,114,115,118,182,185]
	Energy poverty reduction	Renewable energy technologies improve access in underserved regions—especially via distributed solar and small hydro in rural contexts.	[120,127,134,135,184]
	Increased energy security	Renewable energy diversifies supply and reduces import dependence while improving availability, accessibility, and affordability; moreover, grid modernization and energy storage enhance system resilience.	[117,119,129,138,139,140,141,142,143,144]
Economic welfare	Job creation and income growth	RET deployment yields net job creation across construction, O&M, and supply chains; solar and wind show strong employment multipliers.	[155,157,162,165]
	Macroeconomic growth	Positive associations between renewable energy consumption and GDP/household income across multiple contexts.	[52,150,153]

Table 10. Mapping renewable energy deployment to societal welfare dimensions.

Societal Welfare Dimension	Key Renewable Energy Technologies Impact Areas	Representative Findings	References
Environmental welfare	GHG emission reduction	Strong evidence that RETs cut CO2 emissions across regions and are pivotal for meeting climate targets.	[47,49,55]
	Air and water quality	Decreased air pollution (e.g., SO2, NOX) and improved water-use efficiency with reduced contamination risks.	[76,77,84]
	Climate mitigation	RETs enable deep decarbonization in power, transport, and industry, with comparatively low life-cycle emissions, thereby mitigating climate change.	[48,66,67,68]
Social welfare	Health outcomes	Reduced PM2.5 and co-pollutants decrease respiratory and cardiovascular illness; prevent premature deaths.	[77,78,80,183]
	Energy affordability, social equity and inclusion	Long-term system and technology cost reductions; early transition phases may see temporary price increases, but mature RET mixes lower average costs. By improving access and affordability, RETs advance energy justice and reduce inequality; outcomes remain contingent on governance quality	[70,111,113,114,115,118,182,185]
	Energy poverty reduction	Renewable energy technologies improve access in underserved regions—especially via distributed solar and small hydro in rural contexts.	[120,127,134,135,184]
	Increased energy security	Renewable energy diversifies supply and reduces import dependence while improving availability, accessibility, and affordability; moreover, grid modernization and energy storage enhance system resilience.	[117,119,129,138,139,140,141,142,143,144]
Economic welfare	Job creation and income growth	RET deployment yields net job creation across construction, O&M, and supply chains; solar and wind show strong employment multipliers.	[155,157,162,165]
	Macroeconomic growth	Positive associations between renewable energy consumption and GDP/household income across multiple contexts.	[52,150,153]

From a welfare perspective, decarbonization is not only a climate goal but a health and affordability intervention. Integrating RE reliably reduces GHGs and co-pollutants, which translates into fewer premature deaths, lower cardiopulmonary morbidity, and lower household medical expenditures—freeing income for other needs [47,51,162]. Realizing these gains at scale depends on storage, smart grids, and electrification that ensure service reliability for households and essential services [48,64,65], as well as enabling policies, finance, and social acceptance that distribute benefits fairly [69,71,182]. Managing intermittency, land-use conflicts, and local externalities through participatory planning safeguards community welfare [75].

Direct environmental and health co-benefits are core welfare outcomes. Documented declines in ambient pollution improve population health and productivity, with monetized health benefits often exceeding policy costs—effectively yielding net welfare gains [78,79,80,81]. Distribution matters: technology choices and policy design shape who benefits first and most [77,143]. Attention to life-cycle impacts (e.g., N₂O emissions, manufacturing and disposal footprints) preserves net social welfare over the technology life span [89,186]. Evidence linking reductions in PM2.5 and NOx to lower respiratory and cardiovascular risk underscores tangible welfare improvements, especially for children, older adults, and low-income communities that bear higher baseline exposure [90,93,100,183]. Given regional variation in energy mixes and institutions, integrated strategies that align energy, health, and social policies maximize welfare and address evidence gaps in low-income settings [102].

Deployment of renewable energy technologies is also a lever for energy justice. By lowering delivered energy costs over time, improving reliability at the edge of the grid, and enabling modern services (lighting, cooling, digital access), renewable energy reduces energy poverty and vulnerability—key determinants of material well-being and capabilities [120,129,138]. Still, early transitions can raise short-term bills or unevenly distribute benefits without safeguards; targeted tariffs, concessional finance, and community ownership models are critical to equitable outcomes [111,114,115,179].

Economically, renewables contribute to job creation, local income generation, and industrial development—drivers of household welfare when employment is stable, safe, and fairly paid [161,171,177]. Net employment effects are generally positive but require proactive just-transition measures, reskilling, income support, and regional diversification, to avoid localized welfare losses in fossil-dependent areas [160,164,167]. Community participation and benefit-sharing ensure that gains reach marginalized groups and strengthen social cohesion [126,130,131,146].

While the framework in Figure 11 is structured around environmental, social and economic welfare outcomes, the evidence also points to a cross-cutting technological dimension of renewable energy systems [187,188,189]. Advances in generation technologies (e.g., high-efficiency solar and wind), storage solutions, smart grids and digitalization increase the consistency and adaptability of RETs, reduce intermittency-related risks and enhance system flexibility [190,191,192]. These innovations are crucial for translating installed capacity into reliable services and stable welfare gains, particularly in contexts with rapidly growing demand or weak grid infrastructure [193,194]. Conversely, technological lock-in, slow innovation uptake or inadequate system integration can limit the speed and depth of welfare improvements, even when environmental, social and economic objectives are clearly articulated in policy [195,196,197].

In summary, the results show that deployment of renewable energy technologies is a societal welfare-enhancing system: it improves health, affordability, equity, and resilience while decarbonizing. To maximize societal welfare, policies should integrate energy, health, social protection, and labor measures; tailor instruments to local conditions; and monitor distributional effects across income, region, and vulnerability. In order to manage trade-offs and reap the full benefits of renewable energy, continued investment in research, infrastructure, and inclusive policies is essential.

5. Conclusions

This research finds robust, multi-dimensional evidence that the deployment of renewable energy technologies (RETs) enhances societal welfare through an interconnected environmental, social and economic framework. Drawing on a systematic review and bibliometric analysis of 147 peer-reviewed studies published between 2009 and 2025, the paper shows that RET deployment is consistently associated with lower greenhouse-gas emissions and local air pollutants, improved air and water quality, health gains, reductions in energy poverty, stronger energy security and positive economic outcomes.

Environmentally, RETs cut greenhouse-gas emissions and local pollution by displacing fossil-fuel generation and enabling decarbonization across the power, heating and, increasingly, transport and industrial sectors. Quantitative evidence from China and the United States illustrates the magnitude of these effects: in China, a renewable heating policy reduced SO₂ by 28.3%, CO by 7.6%, NO₂ by 5.7% and PM_2.5 by 7.2% in targeted regions, with large-scale deployment projected to avert around 0.6 million premature deaths and 151 million cases of morbidity by 2050; in the United States, renewable portfolio standards and the expansion of wind and solar have generated billions of dollars in health-related benefits, with monetized health co-benefits in some scenarios estimated at about USD 97 billion and often exceeding policy implementation costs. These examples underscore that decarbonization via RETs is not only a climate goal but also a powerful lever for improving population health and reducing health-related expenditures.

Socially, the review finds that renewable energy deployment tends to improve health outcomes, life expectancy and energy affordability, reduce energy poverty and enhance energy security, particularly in regions with high baseline pollution and coal dependence. Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa and the MENA region links renewable energy adoption to higher life expectancy and lower maternal and under-five mortality, while distributed solar and small hydro are repeatedly associated with improved access in rural and underserved areas. However, the magnitude and distribution of these social benefits are heterogeneous and depend on governance quality, policy design, institutional capacity and complementary infrastructure. Without equity-focused measures, early stages of the transition can raise short-term energy costs or unevenly distribute benefits, leaving some vulnerable groups behind.

Economically, RETs contribute to job creation, local income generation and macroeconomic growth. Across contexts, studies report net positive employment effects, particularly in the solar and wind sectors, and higher local incomes and tax revenues in areas hosting renewable projects. At the same time, the durability, quality and spatial distribution of these economic gains are not uniform. Fossil-fuel-dependent regions may face localized job losses and structural adjustment pressures, highlighting the need for proactive just-transition policies, skills development and regional diversification.

Overall, the evidence indicates that RET deployment is welfare-enhancing, but its benefits are neither automatic nor evenly distributed. Realizing the full welfare potential of renewable energy depends on enabling conditions: coherent and stable policy frameworks, accessible and concessional finance, effective grid integration and storage, innovation capacity and social acceptance. It also requires attention to trade-offs and externalities, including land-use and biodiversity impacts, local siting conflicts and environmental pressures associated with technologies such as desalination and materials production.

These findings generate clear implications for policy and research. From a policy perspective, renewable energy should be framed not only as an instrument of climate policy but also as a welfare policy that simultaneously targets health, affordability, equity and resilience. Integrated policy packages that combine large-scale deployment with grid modernization, social protection (e.g., targeted tariffs and just-transition measures), participatory planning and community benefit-sharing are essential to maximize net welfare gains and mitigate local externalities. From a research perspective, important gaps remain, particularly in developing regions, in causal identification of welfare effects, in systematic assessment of life-cycle and equity trade-offs and in the measurement of subjective and distributional welfare outcomes. Future work should deepen evidence on who benefits, under what conditions and through which mechanisms, and should pay particular attention to vulnerable groups and high-risk regions.

In summary, while RET deployment generally increases societal welfare, its full potential is realized only when technologies, markets and institutions are jointly designed to deliver clean, affordable, reliable and equitable energy services.