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Article

Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) in RAS Technology: Zootechnical, Hematological, Biochemical and Kn Profiles at Different Stocking Densities During the Initial Grow-Out Phase

by
Emilly Cordeiro Petillo
1,
Aline da Cunha Ferreira
1,
Christiane Patrícia Feitosa de Oliveira
1,
Lian Valente Brandão
2,
Thiago Marinho-Pereira
3,* and
Bruno Adan Sagratzki Cavero
1
1
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Agricultural Sciences Pesqueiras, Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM), Manaus 69077-000, AM, Brazil
2
Campus Castanhal, Federal Institute of Pará (IFPA), Castanhal 68740-970, PA, Brazil
3
Institute of Water Science and Technology, Federal University of Western Pará (UFOPA), Santarém 68135-110, PA, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Aquac. J. 2025, 5(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/aquacj5010001
Submission received: 29 November 2024 / Revised: 21 December 2024 / Accepted: 3 January 2025 / Published: 8 January 2025
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) is Brazil’s most farmed native species, playing a crucial role in aquaculture. This study aimed to evaluate growth, hematological, biochemical, and body condition (Kn) parameters of tambaqui under two stocking densities in a recirculating aquaculture system (RAS). A total of 240 tambaqui (12.2 ± 4.1 g; 6.63 ± 0.73 cm) were distributed across six experimental units in two treatments (SD1 = 140 fish m−3; SD2 = 180 fish m−3) with three replicates. After 45 days, no significant differences were observed in water quality or zootechnical performance (p > 0.05), with final productivities of 8.64 ± 1.85 kg m3 and 9.46 ± 1.95 kg m3 for SD1 and SD2, respectively. Elevated plasma glucose, cholesterol, and triglyceride levels indicated energy reserve mobilization, suggesting some physiological response to higher stocking densities. However, other hematological and body condition parameters, including condition factor (Kn), indicated no significant adverse effects. These findings suggest that tambaqui can tolerate these stocking densities in RAS without compromising body condition, supporting the species’ intensive farming potential in controlled systems. This study highlights the importance of balancing productivity and physiological conditions in aquaculture management.

1. Introduction

Although Brazil is one of the largest countries in the world in terms of land area, with 7400 km of coastline, a predominantly tropical climate, the largest freshwater reserve on the planet and the fifth largest population [1], and with a per capita fish consumption of 5.7 kg year−1 [2], it still does not play a leading role in the production of aquatic organisms derived from aquaculture and currently occupies 13th position behind South American countries such as Chile and Ecuador [3].
Despite having a series of obstacles inherent to various branches of Brazilian agribusiness (environmental bureaucracy, shortage of subsidized credit and trained professionals, among others), it is possible to affirm that there is a technological delay in aquaculture Brazilian practices [4]. This lag in relation to the main producing countries in the world explains the relatively low productivity per area/volume/farm [5], which generates a pent-up demand in the other links of the production chain.
In this context, one of the possible new links in the Brazilian fish farming production chain is the initial grow-out phase. The initial grow-out phase is the productive phase when the animals are fed with higher levels of crude protein and stocking densities much greater than those used during the rest of the rearing time. To shorten production time and optimize production units that sell fish to slaughterhouses, wholesalers and retailers, the initial grow-out phase could be one more link in the production chain where producers would specialize in the production of animals weighing up to 100 g, providing other traditional producers a condition of harvesting their fish more times a year, increasing their own productive and economic gains [6].
Fish stocking density is one of the most important parameters in evaluating physiological stress [7]. Therefore, for the success of the initial grow-out phase, a correct stocking density is essential because, with appropriate production conditions, physiological and behavioral parameters related to dominance and health, competition for food, aggressiveness and cannibalism will be positively influenced. Consequently, the production parameters related to growth, lot homogeneity and survival will also be positively affected, leading any fish farming enterprise to be sustainable [8,9].
In terms of Brazilian fish farming, one of the most important species is the Amazonian “tambaqui” (Colossoma macropomum; Cuvier 1818). The most cultivated native species in Brazil [5] have always been the subject of studies that aimed to improve their cultivation in high-performance systems, proving that they are adaptable to confinement at high densities. The omnivorous “tambaqui” is a freshwater species native to the Amazon and Orinoco River and it has rusticity, suitable growth and a very delicious and appreciated meat, ideal for intensive aquaculture and challenging markets [10,11,12].
For C. macropomum and its hybrids (Brazilian fish farming production in 2023 = 156.6 thousand tons; [5]), most studies to determine the best stocking densities during the initial grow-out phase have been performed in more traditional production models, such as net cages and excavated ponds [6,13,14,15,16,17,18]. However, with the emergence of intensive and more advanced fish production systems, such as the RAS (Recirculating Aquaculture System), further studies are needed to validate the use of this technology during the production/growth phase.
Although it was conceived in the 1950s [19], it is only now that the RAS system has greater adherence in production, environmental and academic circles because it can combine high productivity (above 30 kg m−3) and the reuse of crop water (more than 90% of water reuse). Thus, greater control over aquaculture effluents is possible through the use of coupled filters for solid removal and the conversion of total ammonia and nitrite into nitrate, in addition to reducing the risk of contamination or the spread of pathogens in adjacent aquatic resources with the use of a UV filter and/or chlorination of wastewater [20]. Furthermore, the reduced water consumption by the RAS also makes it possible to manage the physical and chemical parameters of the water, facilitating the maintenance of concentrations of nitrate and some minerals at levels of interest for hydroponics (aquaculture + hydroponic cultures = aquaponics) [21].
Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the growth, hematological, biochemical and the body condition of C. macropomum subjected to different stocking densities during the initial growth phase in a recirculating system RAS.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Fish, Experimental Design and RAS

The experiment was conducted between 15 April and 29 May 2023, at the Laboratory of Experimental Aquaculture (LAqEx) of the Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM), Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil. A total of 240 males and females of C. macropomum (12.2 ± 4.1 g; 6.63 ± 0.73 cm) were acquired from Santo Antônio farm, located in the northeast of the state of Amazonas, Brazil (2°44′41.7″ S 59°28′49.3″ W).
In a completely randomized design (CRD) [22], the fish were homogeneously distributed into six PVC boxes, an amount equivalent to the six experimental units needed to test, in triplicate, the initial grow-out phase at two different stocking densities: 140 fish m−3 (SD1) and 180 fish m−3 (SD2). The experimental units, with a useful volume of 250 L, were attached to a RAS composed of the following filtering system (Figure 1):

2.2. Feeding, Biometric Procedures and Growth Performance

During the 45-day experimental period, the animals were fed with commercial extruded feed daily until apparent satiation, twice a day (07:00 and 17:00), with feed containing 42% crude protein and 3000 kcal of gross energy kg−1.
To determine the growth profile of C. macropomum juveniles (zootechnical performance), biometric measurements were performed at two time points: (1) the initial time (time zero); and (2) the final time (after 45 days). The morphometric measurements were performed with the aid of an ichthyometer (accuracy = 0.001 m). The fish were weighed with a digital scale (accuracy = 0.5 g).
The entire biometric process was conducted to minimize the stress of the animals. The fish were carefully removed from the tanks with the aid of a net and then anesthetized by immersion in a 250 L box containing water and eugenol (concentration of 20 mg L−1) [23].
After obtaining the initial and final biometric data, it was possible to evaluate the zootechnical performance of C. macropomum juveniles using the following parameters: initial weight (IW), final weight (FW), weight gain (WG), initial biomass (IB), final biomass (FB), biomass gain (BG), initial stocking density (ISD), final stocking density (FSD), specific growth rate (SGR), feed conversion ratio (FCR) and survival rate (SR).

2.3. Blood Parameters and Body Condition

Blood collection (caudal vessel puncture) was performed using syringes containing EDTA (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) anticoagulant. The hematocrit (Ht, %) was determined using the microhematocrit technique. The hemoglobin concentration (Hb, g dL−1) was determined according to the cyanomethemoglobin method. The red cell count (RBC, 106 mm−3) was performed in a Neubauer chamber using a light microscope. The glucose, total cholesterol, triglyceride and total protein levels were determined from the blood plasma using the Labtest® commercial kit (Labtest Diagnóstica S/A, Lagoa Santa, MG, Brazil).
After the hematological analyses, the following indices were determined: mean corpuscular volume (MCV, fL), mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH, pg) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC, g dL−1) [24].
With the biometric data obtained, it was possible to assess the “body condition” and evaluate the nutritional and physiological status of individuals [25]. The Kn factor (Kn) was obtained using the ratio between the final observed weight (Wo) and the expected weight (We) to the observed length (Lt). Additionally, the logarithmic weight-length relationship was established, and the constants “a” and “b” were later used to form another fundamental equation for estimating We as a function of Lt [26].

2.4. Water Quality

Water quality monitoring was performed daily for the following parameters: pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen and electrical conductivity (measured using the Akso multiparameter probe AK88®, Akso Produtos Eletrônicos LTDA, São Leopoldo, RS, Brazil); total ammonia, nitrite and hardness (measured with a Labcon Test® colorimetric kit, Ind. e Com. de Alimentos Desidratados Alcon LTDA, Camboriú, SC, Brazil), and alkalinity was measured with an Aquality ® titration kit (Aquality Indústria e Comércio LTDA, São Paulo, SP, Brazil).

2.5. Statistical Analysis

For the t-test, the zootechnical, hematological, water quality and body condition data were analyzed for normality (Shapiro–Wilk test) and homogeneity of variances (Levene test). All data expressed as percentages were transformed (arcsine) and analyzed with 95% confidence interval [22].

2.6. Ethical Approval

Our experiment was conducted according to the Brazilian laws and regulations for scientific ethics (Law No. 11,794 of 8 October 2008; Resolution CONCEA/MCTI No. 49 of 7 May 2021), and it was approved by the Animal Use Ethics Commission (CEUA) of Universidade Federal do Amazonas, case no. 23105.041497/2023-48.

2.7. Theory/Calculation

Initial weight (IW) = initial biomass (g)/n° individuals in the EU
Final weight (FW) = final biomass (g)/n° individuals in the EU
Weight gain (WG) = final weight (g) − initial weight (g)
Initial biomass (IB) = sum of initial fish weight (kg) in each experimental unit
Final biomass (FB) = sum of final fish weight (kg) in each experimental unit
Biomass gain (BG) = final biomass (kg) − initial biomass (kg)
Initial stocking density (ID) = initial biomass (kg)/volume of experimental units (m3)
Final stocking density (FD) = final biomass (kg)/volume of experimental units (m3)
Specific growth rate (SGR, % day−1) = 100 × [(Ln final weight (g) − Ln initial weight (g)/time (days)]
Feed conversion ratio (FCR) = total feed intake (kg)/biomass gain (kg);
Survival rate (SR, %) = [(number of fish at the end of the experiment/number of fish at the beginning of the experiment) × 100].
Kn factor (Kn) = Wo/We
Weight expected (We) = aLtb
Mean corpuscular volume (MCV, fL) = [(Ht × 10)/RBC]
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH, pg) = Hb/RBC
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC, g dL−1) = [(Hb × 100)/Ht]

3. Results

There were no statistically significant differences between the water quality parameters analyzed at the confidence level of α = 5.0% (Table 1). The zootechnical performance of fish stocked at different densities did not significantly differ (p > 0.05) (Table 2). Furthermore, it was verified that none of the experimental fish died.
The hematological and biochemical profiles of the experimental animals did not differ among the stocking densities (p > 0.05; Table 3). The only exception observed was for triglyceride values, which were greater in the lower-density specimens (140 fish m−3). The degree of healthiness or well-being assessed by the condition factor (Kn) also did not differ between treatments (Table 3).

4. Discussion

In this study, the physical and chemical variables of the water (water quality) remained within the tolerable standards for fish farming, similar to those recommended for the rearing of C. macropomum in an intensive system [27,28]. Therefore, it can be affirmed that none of the limnological parameters negatively influenced the animals during this experiment. The average total ammonia and nitrite obtained can be considered low [29,30], demonstrating the effectiveness of the biological filtration system coupled to the RAS of the experiment.
In most studies, stocking density is a productive variable evaluated as a function of the number of stocked fish (fish m−3) and not of the produced biomass achieved in a given culture volume (kg m−3) [7]. In our study, emphasis was placed on yield per area to establish a standard for evaluating the yield of juvenile C. macropomum. Ref. [17] analyzed the growth, biochemical parameters and body composition of C. macropomum juveniles, with a mean initial weight of 50.1 ± 1.39 g, subjected to a 2 × 2 factorial design for two different stocking densities (15 and 24 kg m−3) and two different cage sizes (22.5 m3 and 40 m3). After 60 days of the experiment, they observed that a greater increase in the number of animals (density of 24 kg m−3) together with the cage with the largest volume (40 m3) was associated with the best performance and body condition (condition factor KN) of the animals.
The average WG obtained by both stocking densities tested was considered satisfactory for 45 days of growth of C. macropomum, resulting in final densities similar to those obtained by [9], demonstrating that, for C. macropomum, there is a greater increase in biomass at stocking densities with a greater number of animals.
Regarding the other production indices related to yield and growth, the average SGR found in this study was greater than those observed by [14,17]. Ref. [14] evaluated the effect of the stocking density of C. macropomum in small-volume cages on the performance of C. macropomum by testing densities of 10, 20, 30 and 40 fish m−3, which resulted in 1.0 ± 0.3% of the maximum SGR (mean initial weight = 150.2 ± 32.7 g).
The results obtained in this study for WG and SGR at the densities tested demonstrate the viability of C. macropomum in the RAS system in terms of weight and size range. In our study, animal survival was a reflection of fish body condition (measured by the condition factor), which indicates that RAS technology can be used for rearing the initial grow-out phase of C. macropomum, corroborating the findings of the present study. Other studies that also managed to perform cropping cycles without showing mortality, such as ref. [12,27,31], in an RAS system; ref. [32], in clear water and biofloc technology; and ref. [28,33], in systems coupled to hydroponics (aquaponics).
Despite the absence of mortality presented in this study, the intensive rearing environment is still a stress factor for the reared animals and is responsible for promoting changes in morphology [34].
However, the values of Hb, Ht, erythrocytes, MCV, MCH, CHCM, plasma glucose, total cholesterol and total protein were quite similar between the stocking densities tested (p > 0.05; α = 5.0%). The only hematological parameter that showed a significant difference was triglycerides, where the SD1 group had a greater triglyceride level (p < 0.05; α = 5.0%).
The Hb, Ht, erythrocyte (RBC) and corpuscular constant (MCV, MCH and MCHC) are important indicators of the oxygen transport capacity of the animals and are consistent with those obtained by [34,35] for C. macropomum.
Ref. [35] subjected C. macropomum juveniles to four different stocking densities (2.11, 8.31, 16.34 and 27.40 kg m−3) for 96 h. At the end of the exposure period to intensive rearing conditions, it was possible to observe significant differences in the red cell parameters only for MCV and MCH.
The mean plasma glucose levels were quite high compared to those observed by [36,37] for C. macropomum and were also greater than those analyzed by [6] for tambatinga (Colossoma macropomum ♀ × Piaractus mesopotamicus ♂) reared in a net cage. Elevated plasma glucose is related to gluconeogenesis triggered during stress events (secondary response) or fasting, as well as in animals fed high levels of protein [34]. However, this may indicate that the stocking density may be physiologically high, generating a picture of a possible reduction in growth velocity due to energy deviation to compensate for the discomfort of animals stored in intensive rearing systems [13].
The mean cholesterol presented by the animals significantly exceeded that observed [38] for different sizes and stocking densities of juvenile C. macropomum in the RAS system. However, total plasma proteins and triglycerides were similar to those observed by [6,36,39].
For triglycerides, a higher plasma concentration was observed in fish subjected to a lower stocking density. In contrast, ref. [38] observed increases in glucose and triglyceride levels in C. macropomum reared at the highest adopted stocking densities of 3.0 and 4.5 kg/m3, associated with increases in energy metabolism via gluconeogenesis, glycogenolysis and lipolysis.
Similar to plasma glucose, high cholesterol and triglyceride levels may indicate an increase in the mobilization of proteins and lipids for intense muscle contraction as a result of intensive culture conditions that lead animals to mobilize their energy reserves [39]. It should also be taken into account that biochemical parameters, as well as hematological parameters, may vary due to the size, age and stage of sexual maturation of the animals [36,37].
The quantitative physical body condition of C. macropomum at the two densities tested was also assessed using the relative condition factor (Kn). This body condition Kn is a key indicator for assessing the health of individuals or populations, as long as it is linked to growth, reproduction, behavior and survival variables. Thus, animals with better Kn conditions have greater energy reserves, allowing them to more easily withstand periods of fasting, in addition to exhibiting more favorable rates of survival and success in reproductive induction [25]. The Kn of the two stocking densities tested in this experiment did not significantly differ at α = 5.0% and met the recommendations, which is very close to the body condition constant Kn = 1.0 [36].
It is also relevant to observe that the area/volume (relation square meter per cubic meter) of the rearing environment can influence the physiological condition of the fish and, consequently, the growth performance and body carcass. Ref. [17] concluded that fish stored at stocking densities of 15 kg m−3 and in cages of 22.5 m3 exhibited worse growth results and greater values of the lipo-somatic index and crude fat in the centesimal composition than did animals stocked at the same density but in larger cages (40.0 m3).
In terms of decreases in hematological and biochemical parameters, ref. [35] observed that the continuous deterioration in water quality automatically generated by the increase in stocking density was largely responsible for the primary and secondary responses to stress. This condition, if not remedied, will result in growth retardation and a reduction in the survival rate of fish. However, low stocking densities combined with a low food supply do not produce the yield necessary to make fish farming economically sustainable [7].
The establishment of a correct fish stocking density contributes to the maintenance of homogeneous lots [38], to increase productivity [7], to reduce production costs per kilo of fish produced [16], to decrease aggression and cannibalism [40], and, for C. macropomum, to increase competition for food provided by higher stocking densities, causing greater efficiency in feed intake, which explains the better FCR compared to treatments with lower densities [17,38,41].
As demonstrated by [31], it can be inferred that there is an inversely proportional relationship between the FCR and stocking density (fish m−3) up to an optimal point where the increase in the number of animals per unit of water is so large that it negatively affects the FCR. Therefore, it is only after this optimal point that the increase in the number of animals per rearing area/volume starts to mean an increase in the FCR.
Therefore, for efficient determination of the best fish stocking densities in intensive systems, the integrated analysis of fish farming should include zootechnical, hematological, biochemical and body condition parameters, as was performed in this study. Considering the treatments tested in this study, further studies are needed to determine the best stocking density for C. macropomum in an intensive RAS system in the initial growth phase.

5. Conclusions

Despite the high values of plasma glucose, cholesterol and triglycerides and considering the other hematological parameters and body condition (Kn), it is possible to affirm that the fish were not negatively affected by the stocking densities (140 and 180 fish m−3) tested in the RAS. Further studies are needed to determine the best stocking density of C. macropomum in an intensive RAS system in the initial growth phase.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.P.F.d.O.; methodology, C.P.F.d.O.; software, T.M.-P.; validation, T.M.-P.; formal analysis, C.P.F.d.O.; investigation, A.d.C.F.; resources, B.A.S.C.; data curation, E.C.P.; writing—original draft preparation, L.V.B.; writing—review and editing, L.V.B.; visualization, E.C.P.; supervision, A.d.C.F.; project administration, C.P.F.d.O.; funding acquisition, B.A.S.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The animal study protocol was approved Animal Use Ethics Commission (CEUA) of Universidade Federal do Amazonas (case no. 23105.041497/2023-48, 30 January 2024).

Data Availability Statement

Data from the study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

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Aquacj 05 00001 g001
Figure 1. Graphic representation of the (RAS) coupled to the experimental units used in the stocking density tests for the initial grow-out phase of Colossoma macropomum. Legend: (EU) = experimental units; (LECA) = lightweight expanded clay aggregate; (RAS) = recirculating aquaculture system.
Figure 1. Graphic representation of the (RAS) coupled to the experimental units used in the stocking density tests for the initial grow-out phase of Colossoma macropomum. Legend: (EU) = experimental units; (LECA) = lightweight expanded clay aggregate; (RAS) = recirculating aquaculture system.
Aquacj 05 00001 g001
Table 1. Water quality parameters of Colossoma macropomum raised in the recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) at two stocking densities (SD1 = 140 fish m−3; SD2 = 180 fish m−3) during the 45-day experimental period.
Table 1. Water quality parameters of Colossoma macropomum raised in the recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) at two stocking densities (SD1 = 140 fish m−3; SD2 = 180 fish m−3) during the 45-day experimental period.
Water Quality ParametersSD1 (140 fish m−3)SD2 (180 fish m−3)
pH [H+]5.49 ± 0.85.40 ± 0.8
Dissolved oxygen (mg L−1)4.13 ± 0.84.04 ± 0.9
Temperature (°C)28.28 ± 0.828.28 ± 0.8
Conductivity (µS cm−1)576.86 ± 349.8594.24 ± 379.0
Alkalinity (mg CaCO3 L−1)16.58 ± 5.214.13 ± 6.6
Hardness (mg CaCO3 L−1)78.33 ± 23.692.94 ± 47.1
Total ammonia nitrogen (mg L−1)0.12 ± 0.10.15 ± 0.1
Nitrite (mg L−1)0.17 ± 0.10.09 ± 0.1
All the data are presented as the means ± standard deviations obtained from experimental units (1 tank = 1 replicate).
Table 2. Zootechnical performance of Colossoma macropomum raised in the recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) at two stocking densities (SD1 = 140 fish m−3; SD2 = 180 fish m−3) during the 45-day experimental period.
Table 2. Zootechnical performance of Colossoma macropomum raised in the recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) at two stocking densities (SD1 = 140 fish m−3; SD2 = 180 fish m−3) during the 45-day experimental period.
Growth Performance ParametersSD1 (140 fish m−3)SD2 (180 fish m−3)
Initial weight (g)13.4 ± 0.011.3 ± 0.0
Final weight (g)61.7 ± 0.052.6 ± 0.0
Weight gain (g)48.3 ± 0.041.3 ± 0.0
Initial biomass (kg)0.469 ± 0.00.509 ± 0.1
Final biomass (kg)2.16 ± 0.52.37 ± 0.5
Biomass gain (kg)1.69 ± 0.51.86 ± 0.4
Initial stocking density (kg m3)1.88 ± 0.12.03 ± 0.3
Final density (kg m3)8.64 ± 1.99.46 ± 2.0
Specific growth rate (%)3.36 ± 0.343.40 ± 0.19
Feed conversion ratio1.12 ± 0.161.20 ±0.35
Survival rate (%)100.0100.0
All the data are presented as the means ± standard deviations obtained from experimental units (1 tank = 1 replicate).
Table 3. Hematological, biochemical and body condition parameters (Kn) of Colossoma macropomum juveniles raised in the recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) at two stocking densities (SD1 = 140 fish m−3; SD2 = 180 fish m−3) during the 45-day experimental period.
Table 3. Hematological, biochemical and body condition parameters (Kn) of Colossoma macropomum juveniles raised in the recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) at two stocking densities (SD1 = 140 fish m−3; SD2 = 180 fish m−3) during the 45-day experimental period.
Physiological ParametersSD1 (140 fish m−3)SD2 (180 fish m−3)
Hemoglobin (g dL−1)4.7 ± 0.54.5 ± 0.6
Erythrocytes (×106 μL−1)1.4 ± 0.31.4 ± 0.2
Hematocrit (%)26.3 ± 2.225.9 ± 3.5
MCV (fL)194.3 ± 33.7194.7 ± 44.6
MCH (pg)34.7 ± 6.633.7 ± 6.3
MCHC (g dL−1)17.8 ± 1.217.6 ± 2.2
Plasma glucose (mg dL−1)366.3 ± 123.8353.9 ± 184.5
Total cholesterol (mg dL−1)582.2 ± 43.3616.1 ± 37.2
Triglycerides (mg dL−1)275.0 ± 158.1 a220.1 ± 148.2 b
Total proteins (g dL−1)3.0 ± 0.63.1 ± 0.7
Body condition Kn1.0 ± 0.10.9 ± 0.1
All the data are presented as the means ± standard deviations obtained from experimental units (1 tank = 1 replicate). In each row, means followed by different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). Note: (MCV) = mean corpuscular volume; (MCH) = mean corpuscular hemoglobin; (CHCM) = mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration.
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Petillo, E.C.; Ferreira, A.d.C.; Oliveira, C.P.F.d.; Brandão, L.V.; Marinho-Pereira, T.; Cavero, B.A.S. Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) in RAS Technology: Zootechnical, Hematological, Biochemical and Kn Profiles at Different Stocking Densities During the Initial Grow-Out Phase. Aquac. J. 2025, 5, 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/aquacj5010001

AMA Style

Petillo EC, Ferreira AdC, Oliveira CPFd, Brandão LV, Marinho-Pereira T, Cavero BAS. Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) in RAS Technology: Zootechnical, Hematological, Biochemical and Kn Profiles at Different Stocking Densities During the Initial Grow-Out Phase. Aquaculture Journal. 2025; 5(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3390/aquacj5010001

Chicago/Turabian Style

Petillo, Emilly Cordeiro, Aline da Cunha Ferreira, Christiane Patrícia Feitosa de Oliveira, Lian Valente Brandão, Thiago Marinho-Pereira, and Bruno Adan Sagratzki Cavero. 2025. "Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) in RAS Technology: Zootechnical, Hematological, Biochemical and Kn Profiles at Different Stocking Densities During the Initial Grow-Out Phase" Aquaculture Journal 5, no. 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/aquacj5010001

APA Style

Petillo, E. C., Ferreira, A. d. C., Oliveira, C. P. F. d., Brandão, L. V., Marinho-Pereira, T., & Cavero, B. A. S. (2025). Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) in RAS Technology: Zootechnical, Hematological, Biochemical and Kn Profiles at Different Stocking Densities During the Initial Grow-Out Phase. Aquaculture Journal, 5(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/aquacj5010001

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