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Article

Effects of Combined Plyometric and Sprint Training on Sprint Performance in Youth Soccer Players

by
Marc Niering
1,*,
Jennifer Heckmann
2,
Johanna Seifert
1,3,
Elisa Ueding
4,
Linus von Elling
5,
Antonia Bruns
6 and
Rainer Beurskens
6
1
Institute of Biomechanics and Neurosciences, Nordic Science, 30173 Hannover, Germany
2
School of Sports, Psychology and Education, Triagon Academy Munich, 85737 Ismaning, Germany
3
Department of Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry, and Psychotherapy, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
4
Institute of Sports Science, Faculty of Humanities, Leibniz University Hannover, 30167 Hannover, Germany
5
Institute of Interdisciplinary Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, MSH Medical School Hamburg, 20457 Hamburg, Germany
6
Department of Health and Social Affairs, FHM Bielefeld—University of Applied Sciences, 33602 Bielefeld, Germany
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Physiologia 2025, 5(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010005
Submission received: 23 October 2024 / Revised: 28 November 2024 / Accepted: 8 January 2025 / Published: 9 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Exercise Physiology and Biochemistry: 2nd Edition)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Background/Objectives: Plyometrics is a widely used method to enhance the physical performance of athletes. Studies have demonstrated that the effectiveness of plyometrics increases when combined with other training methods. This study aims to determine whether the direct combination of plyometric and sprint training improves linear sprint speed and change-of-direction speed in youth soccer players. Methods: Twenty-eight male youth soccer players were randomly assigned to an intervention group (INT, n = 14, 12.9 ± 0.4 years) and a control group (CON, n = 14, 12.9 ± 0.7 years). The INT group performed two sessions per week, each including nine drop jumps, followed by a hurdle jump and one sprint. The CON group only performed nine sprints without any jumps. Both groups continued their regular soccer training over the 20-week intervention period. Pre- and post-intervention tests included 5 m, 10 m, and 30 m linear sprints and a modified agility t-test for change-of-direction speed. Results: Largest improvements were observed in the INT group (5 m = 6.7%, 10 m = 4.8%, 30 m = 2.7%, change-of-direction speed = 3.6%, 3.1%). A significant difference between the groups was noted for the 10 m sprint distance (p = 0.02). Furthermore, moderate to large correlations between linear sprint speed and change-of-direction speed were found in both groups (r = 0.33–0.82). Conclusions: Results suggest that the direct combination of plyometric training and sprint training over a 20-week period can improve both linear sprint speed and change-of-direction speed in youth soccer players, thus enhancing physical performance.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

In soccer, in addition to aerobic endurance, players are frequently required to perform explosive actions such as unpredictable movement patterns, rapid accelerations, and sprints with changes in direction [1,2,3,4]. Professional players may perform over 700 turns per game, highlighting the importance of agility and quick directional changes [5,6]. The ability to quickly change direction, also referred to as change-of-direction speed (CODS), is crucial, as it enables players to respond to stimuli such as ball movements, opponent actions, or teammate instructions [7,8]. Agility, which combines cognitive stimuli with physical responses, is essential for successful gameplay [8,9].
High-speed running is also crucial for ball recoveries and shots on goal. Professional players cover 215–446 m per game at speeds exceeding 23 km/h [10]. Linear sprinting and CODS are pivotal technical skills that contribute to game-winning actions [11]. Even at the youth level, players spend about 9% of game time performing high-intensity actions, with 3% involving sprints [1]. Training adaptations in youth players are influenced by physiological growth, such as increased muscle volume and tendon stiffness, which improve strength and speed [12]. Between the ages of 12 and 14, players experience optimal development of sprinting and soccer-specific skills, making this period crucial for training [13].
However, soccer-specific training alone may not sufficiently enhance sprint, jump, and CODS performance. According to Ramirez-Campillo et al. [14] plyometric training has been shown to effectively improve these abilities in youth athletes. In this age group, plyometric performance primarily relies on the integration of neural and muscular systems, with training-inducing adaptations in muscle-tendon size, architecture, stiffness, and neural coordination. Plyometrics utilize the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), where muscles and tendons store elastic energy during eccentric contractions, enhancing subsequent concentric movements [15]. Additionally, plyometric training improves neuromuscular coordination and tendon stiffness, which optimize energy storage and release, thereby enhancing the efficiency of SSC-driven movements. This mechanism allows for the generation of maximal force in minimal time, improving sprint speed, agility, and explosive strength [16,17]. However, high volumes of plyometric training in youth athletes can lead to an increased risk of injury due to missing tendinous adaptations [18], but also to a reduction in inter-limb asymmetry score [19].
In soccer, plyometric exercises have been demonstrated to improve vertical jump height, sprint acceleration, and CODS, making them a valuable addition to soccer training programs [20,21]. These benefits are particularly significant in youth athletes, where explosive and sprint performance can be maximized [22] due to heightened neural plasticity and rapid physiological changes during puberty [23].
Combining plyometric exercises with sprint training has been suggested to further enhance athletic performance [24,25]. This combination may prepare athletes more effectively for match situations by increasing muscle temperature and neuromuscular activation, resulting in short-term performance improvements known as post-activation potentiation (PAP) [26,27]. Several studies have demonstrated that combining plyometric and sprint training improves sprint times and movement efficiency [24,28].
Despite evidence supporting the effectiveness of plyometric and sprint training, research on their combined use in youth soccer players is limited [16]. While individual studies have focused on plyometric or sprint training, there is a lack of research investigating the combined effects of both modalities in soccer-specific contexts, particularly in prepubescent athletes [22]. Given the promising results from combined interventions, further research is warranted to determine their effectiveness in enhancing sprint and CODS performance in youth soccer players [29,30].
The present study aims to address this gap by examining the effects of a combined plyometric and sprint training intervention on sprint performance in youth soccer players aged 12 to 13 years. It is hypothesized that combined training will lead to greater improvements in both linear sprint speed and CODS compared to sprint training alone. Furthermore, this approach may offer a time-efficient, low-equipment training method for improving a wide range of soccer-specific athletic skills.

2. Results

All participants followed the assigned interventions (i.e., CON or ALT exercise program). The participation rates in the exercise sessions were 93% for the CON group and 87% for the ALT group. Players who attended less than 80% of the sessions (n = 3) were excluded from further analysis. Over the 20-week period, participants were expected to complete three sessions per week, with an average of 50 ± 2.44 sessions in the INT group and 52 ± 2.41 sessions in the CON group.
Means and SD for linear sprint speed and CODS at T1 and T2 are presented in Table 1 and Figure 1. The ANOVA outcome is displayed in Table 2.
Results show training improvements for linear sprint performance for 5, 10, and 30 m in both INT and CON, indicated by the significant main effects of Time for each sprint distance (all p < 0.001; d = 0.49–0.78 indicating small to moderate effects). Similar effects were found for CODS in both directions (all p < 0.001; d = 0.75–0.94 indicating large effects). Both groups improved linear sprint performance by 2.0% (30 m sprint), 3.2% (10 m sprint) to 4.9% (5 m sprint), as well as CODS by 2.5 (right) to 2.7% (left), following training. Regarding sprint performance, none of the examined parameters showed a significant main effect of Group (p = 0.71–0.84; d = 0.01–0.10). Similarly, no significant effect of Group could be obtained for CODS in either direction (p = 0.14–0.16). However, Cohen’s d showed small to moderate effect sizes for CODS left (d = 0.48) and CODS right (d = 0.54).
For the 10 m sprint, a significant interaction effect for Time x Group was shown (p = 0.02, d = 0.35). Further, a tendency towards significance could be shown for the Time x Group interaction for 5 m sprint performance (p = 0.06, d = 0.15). INT improved linear sprint performance by 6.6% for the 5 m distance and by 4.6% for the 10 m distance, while CON improved by 3.1% for 5 m and by 1.8% for the 10 m distance. Additionally, the 30 m sprint (INT: +2.6%; CON: +1.3%), as well as CODS in both directions (INT: +3.4/+3.0%; CON: +2.1/2.0% for left and right direction, respectively), did not show significant interaction effects (p = 0.11–0.20, d = 0.25–0.35, indicating small effect sizes). CON improved by 0.12 s (2.1%) to the left and 0.11 s (2.0%) to the right direction, while INT showed gains of 0.20 s (3.6%) to the left and 0.17 s (3.1%) to the right direction.
Table 3 displays the results of the Pearson correlation analyses. Positive correlations were observed across all measures. For INT, moderate correlations were found between CODS left and 5 m sprint (r = 0.38), 10 m sprint (r = 0.33) and 30 m sprint (r = 0.38), as well as between CODS right and 5 m sprint (r = 0.42), 10 m sprint (r = 0.34) and 30 m sprint (r = 0.41). For CON, small to large correlations were found between CODS left and 5 m sprint (r = 0.22), 10 m sprint (r = 0.13) and 30 m sprint (r = −0.14), as well as between CODS right and 5 m sprint (r = 0.82), 10 m sprint (r = 0.58) and 30 m sprint (r = 0.16).

3. Methods

3.1. Participants

A total of 28 male youth soccer players (n = 28; age: 12.9 ± 0.4 years; body weight: 41.2 kg ± 4.5; height: 1.52 m ± 0.1) participated in this study, all of whom were approaching their peak growth period. The participants were recruited from the U12 and U13 teams of a youth soccer academy affiliated with a German Bundesliga club.
Inclusion criteria required participants to be 12–14 years old and have prior experience in linear sprint and CODS training. Exclusion criteria included medical problems in the previous six weeks, a history of ankle, knee, or back injuries, medical or orthopedic conditions that could affect performance, reconstructive surgery on the lower extremities within the past 12 months, or chronic musculoskeletal conditions. None of the participants had previously engaged in isolated or combined plyometric training either within or outside the club.
Before the intervention, all participants underwent a medical examination to assess fitness for sports. Further, tendon pathologies were ruled out. Baseline measurements of body height, weight, and age were collected before the initial testing (Table 4).
Due to the participants’ minor status, parental consent was required for participation in the study. Participants and their parents were fully informed about the study’s content, risks, procedures, and potential benefits. This included an explanation of risk mitigation strategies and the voluntary nature of participation, with the option to withdraw at any time. After the study’s completion, both the participants and their parents were informed of the results.

3.2. Procedures

At the start of the season, participants were randomly assigned to an intervention group (INT; a combination of plyometric and sprint training) and a control group (CON; sprint training only) using a computer program, without being informed of the expected differences between the interventions. A longitudinal study design was employed to systematically evaluate the physical parameters of both groups throughout the competitive season (Figure 2).
During the 20-week intervention period, trainers supervised the sessions and documented player attendance using a database (SoccerWeb, SoccerCollection oHG, Iserlohn, Germany). Absences from training, injuries, and illness-related breaks were also recorded. Coaches were aware of the group assignments, as they were responsible for instructing both groups. Four days before the first test, an athletic coach demonstrated the exercises to both groups, allowing the participants to practice them twice at submaximal intensity. On the first training day, no further demonstrations or practice were allowed.
Speed diagnostics of linear as well as acyclic sprints were conducted for data collection. Testing occurred before the intervention (T1) and after 20 weeks (T2), both on artificial turf under dry conditions at 10 a.m. on Saturday mornings [15]. Participants were instructed to wear the same footwear for all measurements. The training load was standardized and documented in the week leading up to testing. Testers were blinded to group assignments. Testing was conducted by two athletic trainers who were not involved in the intervention. During the testing phase, participants received instructions from the same athletic coach on how to perform the tests and were allowed two familiarization trials for all test procedures. These trials were performed at submaximal intensity to prevent fatigue prior to the actual testing.

3.2.1. Assessments of Linear Speed

To assess linear sprint speed, participants performed a 30 m sprint from a standing start without an auditory signal. The starting position was determined using a foot contact mat (Smartspeed Lite®, Fusion Sport, Brisbane, Australia), while timing gates recorded sprint times at 5 m, 10 m, and 30 m. The test for linear sprint speed has shown high validity and reliability for distances up to 40 m (ICC = 0.17–0.86) [31].

3.2.2. Assessments of Change-of-Direction Speed

To assess change-of-direction speed (CODS), the test subjects performed a modified agility t-test [32]. In this adapted version, side steps were replaced by straight-line sprints, which are more relevant to soccer-specific speed development than linear sprinting alone. The test began with a visual signal upon which subjects sprinted 5 m to the first cone, then changed direction to cover an additional 2.5 m to the next cone before reversing direction and returning to the starting point. Time was measured using light barriers (Smartspeed Lite®, Fusion Sport, Brisbane, Australia), with the starting position determined by a foot contact mat (Smartspeed Lite®, Fusion Sport, Brisbane, Australia). The procedure was conducted twice, first with a directional change to the left and, afterward, to the right, totaling six runs (three in each direction) with a 60 s rest interval. The fastest trial for each direction was identified separately and used for further analysis.

3.3. Description of the Intervention Programs

Sessions were held at 4:30 p.m. during regular training times, with participants assessed for readiness and pain (VAS > 0) before each session to exclude those experiencing discomfort. Both groups were informed of the aim to improve sprint performance, minimizing bias.
Both groups began each session with a standardized warm-up based on the FIFA 11+ program [33], followed by their respective intervention program, which was nine sets of 10 m sprint (CON) or drop jump + 10 m sprint (INT), with 60 s active recovery intervals between each sprint. Following the sprinting exercises, participants proceeded with their regular soccer training as usual. All exercises were conducted using only body weight, with no additional equipment.
The CON group performed the nine 10 m sprints from a crouched start, with the distance measured from hand placement.
The INT group performed plyometric exercises before each sprint, starting with a bilateral drop jump from a 40 cm box, immediately followed by a horizontal jump over a 10 cm hurdle placed 60 cm from the box, and concluding with a 10 m sprint. Drop jumps activate the stretch-shortening cycle, enhance vertical acceleration, and have been shown to effectively boost sprint speed [34,35]. The participants were instructed in the drop jump intervention by the same athletic coach. Two familiarization sessions were conducted prior to the intervention to ensure the correct execution of the combined drop jump and sprint exercise.
Horizontal jumps have proven to improve performance in sports requiring directional changes [36,37]. Combining vertical and horizontal stimuli can result in greater gains in explosive strength for youth soccer players [38]. Exercises included alternating front and lateral jumps with both dominant and non-dominant legs to enhance post-activation potentiation (PAP) effects [27] and promote neuromuscular coordination and injury prevention [39].

3.4. Statistical Analysis

Data are presented as mean values and standard deviations (SD) for each group (INT, CON) and tested for normality using Shapiro–Wilk tests (all p > 0.05). To examine our hypothesis that performance changes following a combined sprint and plyometric training in contrast to sprint training alone in youth soccer players, separate 2 (Time: T1, T2) × 2 (Group: INT, CON) ANOVAs with repeated measure on time were computed for linear sprint performance (i.e., sprint times at 5/10/30 m) and acyclic sprint performance (i.e., CODS). Effect sizes were determined by calculating Cohen’s d [40,41] and interpreted as follows: <0.2 (trivial), 0.2–0.6 (small), 0.6–1.2 (moderate), and 1.2–2.0 (large) [42].
To examine the relationship between training-related improvements in linear sprint speeds and CODS, Pearson’s correlations were calculated separately for the intervention and control group using the differences in sprint performance (i.e., 5 m sprint, 10 m sprint, 30 m sprint) and CODS (left and right) between T1 and T2 measurements. Correlation coefficient r was interpreted as follows: |r| = 0.1 (small), |r| = 0.3 (moderate), |r| = 0.5 (large) [40]. All analyses were conducted using jamovi software (The jamovi Project, Version 2.3), and significance levels were set at α = 5%.
A priori as well as post hoc power analyses were conducted using G*Power 3.1 [43]. For a priori analysis, results from Rey et al. [44], who investigated training-related improvements in sprint performance in youth soccer players (mean age: 12.3 ± 0.5 years) were used to estimate sample size. Rey et al. [44] found significant intervention effects (p = 0.046) with a partial η2 of 0.15. Using this partial η2, our power analysis showed that a total sample size of 22 participants would be sufficient to examine training-related improvements in sprint performance in our study (f = 0.42; critical F = 4.35; actual power = 0.96). For post hoc power analysis, a partial η2 of 0.19 (p = 0.02) was found for sprint performance in the present study. Given this partial η2, post hoc power analysis showed that the sample size of n = 28 participants is sufficient to examine training-related improvements in sprint performance in our study (f = 0.48; critical F = 4.23; actual power = 0.99).

4. Discussion

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a 20-week intervention combining plyometric exercises with subsequent sprint training on linear sprint speed and CODS in youth soccer players. Our results showed significant improvements in the 10 m sprint performance in the intervention group compared to the control group. For the 5 m sprint, improvements showed a trend towards significance. Both groups demonstrated improvements in CODS, although there were no significant differences between the groups. The differences in CODS performance between the left and right sides are reflected in both the Time effects and the Time × Group interaction effects. The Time effects showed a larger improvement for CODS left (d = 0.94) compared to CODS right (d = 0.75), possibly due to the testing protocol, according to which all participants were required to begin with the left side. This could have resulted in a learning effect or neuromuscular advantage for the left side, while the right side might have been impacted by fatigue. Similarly, the Time x Group interaction showed a slightly larger effect for CODS left (d = 0.37) compared to CODS right (d = 0.27), indicating that the intervention group improved more on the left side compared to the control group. To avoid potential bias, alternating the starting direction in future tests could help balance performance outcomes between left and right CODS. In addition to statistical significance, the effect sizes highlight the magnitude of the observed changes. While the improvements in sprint performance were small to moderate (d = 0.49–0.78), the larger effect sizes for CODS (d = 0.75–0.94) suggest more substantial gains in agility, which may be more relevant for sports requiring rapid direction changes. Even though no significant group effects were found (p = 0.71–0.84), the small to moderate effect sizes for CODS (d = 0.48–0.54) still indicate meaningful improvements that warrant further exploration in future studies.
Moderate correlations between sprint speed and CODS were found in the intervention group, particularly for 5 m (r = 0.38) and 10 m (r = 0.33) sprints, suggesting that plyometric training effectively enhanced both measures. In contrast, the control group showed more variable correlations, with stronger relationships, such as for CODS right and 5 m (r = 0.82), but also weaker or negative ones, particularly over longer distances. This variability indicates that combining plyometric and sprint training provided a more consistent benefit across both sprint and CODS performance. In soccer, rapid sprints and quick directional changes are crucial components of match performance [2]. Stølen et al. [45] reported that 96% of sprints in a game are shorter than 30 m, with 49% being shorter than 10 m, emphasizing the need to focus on acceleration over short distances. Training these acceleration phases, particularly between 5 m and 10 m, is crucial for youth players, who may accelerate up to 80 times in a match [46]. The developmental window between the ages of 12 and 14 is particularly pivotal for enhancing speed, explosiveness, and agility, making it an ideal period for targeted training [13].
Previous studies have explored the effects of plyometric training on speed development [21,38,47], as well as the impact of strength training [20,48,49,50] and the combination of plyometric and sprint training [20,48,51]. However, limited research has focused on the direct integration of plyometric exercises with isolated sprints specifically in youth soccer players [16,52]. Our study contributes to this literature by investigating the effects of this combined approach over an extended 20-week training period.
Beato et al. [53] combined jump exercises with sprints involving directional changes, observing improvements in sprint performance but no significant enhancements in CODS. Similarly, Michailidis et al. [22] reported no notable gains in sprint speed after a six-week intervention combining plyometric training with CODS exercises (10 m sprint: p = 0.972; 30 m sprint: p = 0.601), attributing the lack of progress to the chosen exercises and their progression. Their intervention utilized multiple exercise sequences, including unilateral and bilateral jumps, followed by sprints with directional changes, which contrasted with our study’s consistent routine of unilateral, bilateral, and hurdle jumps.
Michailidis et al. [22] also employed a fluctuating jump volume during their intervention, which increased and then decreased nonlinearly over six weeks. This approach may have disrupted the adaptation process. Bedoya et al. [15] emphasize that a consistent progression is essential for maintaining stimulus intensity in plyometric training to ensure ongoing adaptation. In our study, the number of ground contacts (nine per session) was kept stable, aligning with these recommendations and allowing adequate adaptation without overloading the musculoskeletal system. According to Lloyd et al. [54], physiological adaptations, such as improved muscle-tendon stiffness and energy transfer efficiency, are more pronounced in older athletes or those with advanced training experience. In younger populations, however, performance improvements are predominantly due to neurological rather than physiological adaptations [55]. These neurological changes, including enhanced motor unit recruitment, improved neural coordination, or preactivation before ground contact, improve efficiency during quick movements like short sprints or directional changes.
In our study, the largest percentage improvements were observed in the shorter sprint distances, with the 5 m sprint showing a 6.6% improvement and the 10 m sprint improving by 4.6%. This outcome aligns with previous research, showing greater gains in short sprints following plyometric interventions [16,20,52,56]. The smaller improvements over 30 m may be attributed to muscle fatigue impacting performance beyond the initial 10 m, reducing the plyometric exercises’ effectiveness on longer distances. Since short sprints are predominant in soccer [45], these improvements are particularly relevant for match performance.
The significant correlation between sprint speed and CODS observed in this study aligns with previous research highlighting their interdependence [57]. Physiological mechanisms such as enhanced neuromuscular coordination and increased muscle-tendon stiffness likely contributed to these improvements, both outcomes of plyometric training [58]. The SSC, fundamental to both jumping and sprinting, may also have played a key role in improving linear speed and CODS [59]. Drop jumps, integrated into this study, specifically target the SSC, preparing athletes for explosive movements like sprints [58]. Additionally, the PAP effect, triggered by plyometric exercises, could explain the enhanced muscle contractility observed post-training [60].
While several studies employed shorter intervention periods of six to eight weeks [16,52], Tvrdý et al. [52] reported significant improvements in both linear sprint speed (10 m: p < 0.00001; 20 m: p < 0.00001) and CODS (505 agility test: p < 0.001) following a 6-week intervention that involved high-intensity, multi-directional exercises. In contrast, our study implemented a 20-week intervention with a lower plyometric load of nine ground contacts per session and three weekly sessions. The longer duration and lower volume may have contributed to more gradual improvements in our study compared to the more rapid gains seen in Tvrdý et al.’s higher-intensity, shorter-duration program. Despite their effectiveness, their approach required extensive equipment and oversight, limiting practicality. In contrast, this study maintained a consistent training regimen over 20 weeks without extra equipment, providing a more accessible model for teams with limited resources.
Aloui et al. [16,61,62] also demonstrated significant gains in sprint speed and CODS across multiple age groups (U15, U17, U19) using a higher volume of ground contacts and shorter interventions. However, our longer 20-week duration enabled a more gradual adaptation, potentially lowering injury risk while still achieving significant performance improvements. Furthermore, Aloui et al. [16] provided longer rest periods between exercises, which might have contributed to faster adaptation, unlike the 60 s intervals used in this study.
A distinguishing aspect of this study was the inclusion of drop jumps, which were seldom used in previous interventions. Drop jumps, known for enhancing sprint speed through the SSC [59], may have effectively primed athletes for explosive sprints by leveraging the PAP effect [60].
Despite the overall gains, smaller improvements were observed over the 30 m sprint compared to shorter distances, likely due to the declining impact of plyometric exercises on longer sprints. Plyometrics primarily enhance acceleration, most effective in the first 10 m, with other factors like maximal speed and endurance becoming more influential beyond this range. This finding aligns with the results from Aloui et al. [16] and Hammami et al. [20], who also reported greater improvements in short sprints.
This study is among the first to explore the direct combination of plyometric and sprint training in youth soccer players over an extended 20-week period. The results highlight the effectiveness of combining these methods to significantly enhance sprint speed and CODS, particularly over 5 m and 10 m distances, compared to sprint training alone.
This study offers valuable insights, though its long-term effects are unclear. Future research should explore whether similar improvements can be achieved with shorter interventions, such as six or eight weeks. The relatively small sample size limits the generalizability of the findings, emphasizing the need for replication in larger populations and diverse age groups. Additionally, the absence of direct physiological measurements, such as electromyographic data or tendon stiffness, constrains our ability to fully elucidate the mechanisms underlying the observed performance changes. Future research should aim to integrate such variables to better connect training outcomes with physiological adaptations. Moreover, examining progressive plyometric training with increasing complexity could further enhance performance, while also considering biological factors, such as testosterone levels, and participant satisfaction with the training program [63]. In addition, the study lacks a sham or non-treatment group, leaving it unclear to what extent the results were influenced by regular soccer training and matches. Furthermore, the variance in VO₂ max values between individuals and groups was not controlled, limiting the significance of the findings. Another limitation is that sprint training was examined only as a single control group. To allow for more differentiated conclusions, it would have been beneficial to analyze drop jumps without sprints separately in a second control group. Further, the absence of biological age data means the potential influence of the maturation process on the results cannot be excluded.

5. Conclusions and Practical Applications

Following a 20-week period of sprint training interventions, significant improvements were observed in the 10 m linear sprint speed (p = 0.02, d = 0.35) among the group performing a combined plyometric and sprint training compared to sprint training alone. While enhancements with moderate effects were also noted in 5 m (d = 0.15), 30 m sprints (d = 0.25), and CODS (right: d = 0.27; left: d = 0.37), these changes were not statistically significant. The most substantial gains occurred in the 5 m and 10 m sprints, indicating that the combined plyometric and sprint training is particularly effective for short sprints and acceleration, and therefore also improves CODS. The minimal equipment required makes this intervention practical for various training settings.
Compared to sprint training alone, the combination of plyometric exercises immediately followed by sprints proved more effective in improving both linear sprint speed and CODS in youth players. This finding offers valuable insights for practitioners involved in the training of youth soccer players, including coaches and sports scientists, as it offers a readily implementable strategy for enhancing performance on the field with limited resources. Regular integration of plyometric training with sprints can significantly enhance both linear sprint speed and CODS in male youth soccer players aged 12–13, making it a recommended addition to routine training.
Given the limited research on combining plyometric training with sprints in youth soccer, future studies should aim to replicate these findings with larger sample sizes to validate the results. Further research could also explore whether shorter intervention periods yield similar improvements and how variations in ground contact times influence outcomes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: M.N., J.H. and R.B.; methodology: M.N. and J.H.; formal analysis: M.N., R.B., E.U., A.B., L.v.E. and J.S.; writing—original draft preparation: M.N. and J.H.; writing—review and editing: M.N., R.B., J.H., E.U., A.B., L.v.E. and J.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Approval for the study protocol was obtained from the Human Ethics Committee at the Nordic Science Institute of Biomechanics and Neurosciences, Hannover, Germany, HEC-IBN-2023-03.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study, as well as their legal guardians.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article, and further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author/s.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Physiologia 05 00005 g001
Figure 1. Changes in time needed for the (A) 5 m sprint, (B) 10 m sprint, (C) 30 m sprint, (D) CODS left, and (E) CODS right after 20 weeks of intervention for the intervention group.
Figure 1. Changes in time needed for the (A) 5 m sprint, (B) 10 m sprint, (C) 30 m sprint, (D) CODS left, and (E) CODS right after 20 weeks of intervention for the intervention group.
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Figure 2. Description of study design.
Figure 2. Description of study design.
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Table 1. Means and SD of linear sprint performance and CODS.
Table 1. Means and SD of linear sprint performance and CODS.
INT (n = 14)CON (n = 14)
T1T2T1T2
5 m sprint (s)1.44 ± 0.101.34 ± 0.051.40 ± 0.081.36 ± 0.11
10 m sprint (s)2.28 ± 0.132.17 ± 0.092.25 ± 0.122.21 ± 0.13
30 m sprint (s)5.20 ± 0.235.07 ± 0.235.19 ± 0.235.12 ± 0.24
CODS right (s)5.79 ± 0.165.61 ± 0.225.65 ± 0.195.54 ± 0.19
CODS left (s)5.75 ± 1.645.56 ± 0.195.63 ± 0.175.51 ± 0.17
CODS = change-of-direction speed; INT = intervention group; CON = control group; T1 = pre-testing; T2 = post-testing.
Table 2. ANOVA results for main and interaction effects of linear sprint performance and CODS.
Table 2. ANOVA results for main and interaction effects of linear sprint performance and CODS.
TimeGroupTime × Group
p-ValueCohen’s dp-ValueCohen’s dp-ValueCohen’s d
5 m sprint (s)<0.001 ***0.78 ##0.710.100.060.15
10 m sprint (s)<0.0010.70 ##0.840.080.020.35 #
30 m sprint (s)<0.0010.49 #0.830.010.200.25 #
CODS right (s)<0.0010.75 ##0.140.54 ##0.120.27 #
CODS left (s)<0.0010.94 ###0.160.48 #0.110.37 #
CODS = change-of-direction speed; *** = p < 0.001, respectively; #, ##, ### = small, moderate, and large effects, respectively.
Table 3. Pearson’s correlation of linear sprint speed and CODS.
Table 3. Pearson’s correlation of linear sprint speed and CODS.
INTCON
rr
CODS l (s)5 m sprint (s)0.380.22
10 m sprint (s)0.330.13
30 m sprint (s)0.38−0.14
CODS r (s)5 m sprint (s)0.420.82
10 m sprint (s)0.340.58
30 m sprint (s)0.410.16
|r| = 0.1 (small), |r| = 0.3 (moderate), |r| = 0.5 (large).
Table 4. Anthropometry of the subjects before the start of the study period at T1.
Table 4. Anthropometry of the subjects before the start of the study period at T1.
TotalINTCON
n281414
age (years)12.9 ± 0.4412.9 ± 0.4712.9 ± 0.42
body height (m)1.54 ± 0.071.52 ± 0.081.53 ± 0.06
body mass (kg)42.2 ± 4.4842.0 ± 4.6840.3 ± 4.33
BMI (kg/m2)17.7 ± 1.3117.3 ± 1.2218.2 ± 1.27
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Niering, M.; Heckmann, J.; Seifert, J.; Ueding, E.; von Elling, L.; Bruns, A.; Beurskens, R. Effects of Combined Plyometric and Sprint Training on Sprint Performance in Youth Soccer Players. Physiologia 2025, 5, 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010005

AMA Style

Niering M, Heckmann J, Seifert J, Ueding E, von Elling L, Bruns A, Beurskens R. Effects of Combined Plyometric and Sprint Training on Sprint Performance in Youth Soccer Players. Physiologia. 2025; 5(1):5. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010005

Chicago/Turabian Style

Niering, Marc, Jennifer Heckmann, Johanna Seifert, Elisa Ueding, Linus von Elling, Antonia Bruns, and Rainer Beurskens. 2025. "Effects of Combined Plyometric and Sprint Training on Sprint Performance in Youth Soccer Players" Physiologia 5, no. 1: 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010005

APA Style

Niering, M., Heckmann, J., Seifert, J., Ueding, E., von Elling, L., Bruns, A., & Beurskens, R. (2025). Effects of Combined Plyometric and Sprint Training on Sprint Performance in Youth Soccer Players. Physiologia, 5(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/physiologia5010005

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