Cleaning Bharat (India): A Scoping Review of Perceptions Regarding How Swachh Bharat Can Continue to Improve Hygiene Across the Nation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Impacts and Scale of Poor Sanitation
1.2. Initiation of Swachh Bharat Mission
1.3. Benefits of Swachh Bharat Mission
1.4. Next Phase of Swachh Bharat Mission
1.5. Persisting Issues and Challenges
1.6. Improving Implementation of Swachh Bharat Mission
1.7. Research Aim
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Search Terms
2.2. Criteria for Inclusion
2.3. Screening Process
2.4. Extraction of Data
2.5. Synthesis and Presentation of Data
3. Results
3.1. Selection of Articles
- Google Scholar: 3329 results.
- OVID Medline: 1889 results.
- Scopus: 217 results.
- EBSCO Academic Search Complete: 10 results.
- Web of Science: 4 results.
- PsycINFO: 2 results.
- Embase: 2 results.
- Citation search of reference lists: 1 result.
3.2. Study Characteristics
3.3. Key Findings Pertaining to SBM
- Successes of SBM
- The role of media
- Awareness, mindset, and education
- Waste disposal issues
- General/other SBM issues
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- UNICEF. Diarrhoea; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2024; Available online: https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-health/diarrhoeal-disease/ (accessed on 25 November 2024).
- World Health Organization. Diarrhoeal Disease; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2024; Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diarrhoeal-disease (accessed on 21 November 2024).
- Khura, B.; Mohanty, P.; Gandhi, A.P.; Patnaik, L.; Mewara, A.; Pradhan, K.; Padhi, B.K. Mapping Concurrent Wasting and Stunting Among Children Under Five in India: A Multilevel Analysis. International journal of public health. Int. J. Public Health 2023, 68, 1605654. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Government of India. About Swachh Bharat Mission; Swachh Baharat Mission: New Delhi, India, 2024. Available online: https://swachhbharatmission.gov.in/sbmcms/index.htm (accessed on 5 November 2024).
- United Nations. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (Clean India Mission. SDGS.UN.). Available online: https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/swachh-bharat-abhiyan-clean-india-mission (accessed on 5 November 2024).
- UNICEF. Financial and Economic Impacts of the Swachh Bharat Mission of India; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2018; Available online: https://www.unicef.org/india/media/1206/file/Financial-and-Economic-Impacts.pdf (accessed on 18 October 2024).
- Hutton, G.; Patil, S.; Kumar, A.; Osbert, N.; Odhiambo, F. Comparison of the costs and benefits of the clean India mission. World Dev. 2020, 134, 105052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Prakash, S.; Kumar, P.; Dhillon, P.; Unisa, S. Correlates of access to sanitation facilities and benefits received from the Swachh Bharat Mission in India: Analysis of cross-sectional data from the 2018 National Sample Survey. BMJ Open 2022, 12, e060118. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- World Health Organization. Health Gains from the Swachh Bharat Initiative; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland,, 2018; Available online: https://www.who.int/india/news/detail/27-07-2018-health-gains-from-the-swachh-bharat-initiative (accessed on 29 September 2024).
- Tiwari, A.; Tiwari, A. Kayakalp: Impact of swachh bharat abhiyan on cleanliness, infection control and hygiene promotion practices in district hospitals of Chhattisgarh, India. IOSR J. Environ. Sci. Toxicol. Food Technol. 2016, 10, 55–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dandabathula, G.; Bhardwaj, P.; Burra, M.; Rao, P.V.V.P.; Rao, S.S. Impact assessment of India’s Swachh Bharat Mission-Clean India Campaign on acute diarrheal disease outbreaks: Yes, there is a positive change. J. Fam. Med. Prim. Care 2019, 8, 1202–1208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gahlot, A.; Singh, S.P.; Nayan, R.K.; Bhagoliwal, A. Impacts of Swachh Bharat Mission on awareness and health of rural population in Kanpur Nagar, Uttar Pradesh. Indian. J. Forensic Community Med. 2019, 6, 103–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Government of India. Swachh Bharat Mission -Grameen (SBM): Phase II (2019–2025); Government of India: New Delhi, India, 2025. Available online: https://swachhbharatmission.ddws.gov.in/about_sbm (accessed on 12 November 2024).
- Government of India. India Achieves Major Sanitation Milestone As 75% Villages Are Now ODF Plus Under Swachh Bharat Mission-Grameen; Government of India: New Delhi, India, 2023. Available online: https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1959918 (accessed on 22 November 2024).
- UNICEF. Poo to the Loo Campaign; UNICEF: New York, NY, USA, 2024; Available online: https://www.unicef.org/india/campaigns/take-poo-loo (accessed on 6 November 2024).
- Dandagi, S.; Godara, N.R. Swachh Bharat Mission–An overview of its impact on knowledge and practices on sanitation, hygiene and waste disposal among general population in selected villages of Belagavi, Karnataka. J. Pharm. Negat. Results 2022, 13, 1140–1148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Walake, R.C.; Singh, D.K.; Yadav, R.N.; Singh, L.B. Utilization Pattern of Various Sources of Information for the Awareness of “Swachh Bharat Mission” in Meerut District. Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 2021, 21, 67–70. [Google Scholar]
- Tricco, A.C.; Lillie, E.; Zarin, W.; O’Brien, K.K.; Colquhoun, H.; Levac, D.; Moher, D.; Peters, M.D.; Horsley, T.; Weeks, L.; et al. PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation. Ann. Intern. Med. 2018, 169, 467–473. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Page, M.J.; McKenzie, J.E.; Bossuyt, P.M.; Boutron, I.; Hoffmann, T.C.; Mulrow, C.D.; Shamseer, L.; Tetzlaff, J.M.; Akl, E.A.; Brennan, S.E.; et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ 2021, 372, n71. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nath, B.; Yadav, S.K.; Kumari, R. Perception of Medical Students regarding “Swachh Bharat Abhiyan” a cleanliness campaign: A qualitative study. Indian J. Community Health 2018, 30, 253–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Curtis, V. Explaining the outcomes of the ‘Clean India’ campaign: Institutional behaviour and sanitation transformation in India. BMJ Glob. Health 2019, 4, e001892. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Datta, A.; Somani, A.; Karmakar, N.; Nag, K. A study on knowledge and practices regarding swachh bharat mission among urban population of Agartala city, North East India. Med. J. Dr DY Patil Vidyapeeth 2021, 14, 529–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Paul, S.; Mehra, S.; Sidhu, G.; Malhotra, V.; Sidhu, T.K.; Prajapati, P. Swachh Bharat Summer Internship Programme: An Opportunity of Community Based Service Learning Practice for Medical Students in India. Int. J. Med. Public Health 2021, 11, 118–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jack, T.; Anantharaman, M.; Browne, A.L. ‘Without cleanliness we can’t lead the life, no?’ Cleanliness practices, (in) accessible infrastructures, social (im) mobility and (un) sustainable consumption in Mysore. India. Soc. Cult. Geogr. 2022, 23, 814–835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Khandare, L.; Salve, P.S. Examining Determinants of Health among Safai Karmacharis (“Ex-Untouchables” Caste) in Mumbai. Soc. Dev. Issues 2023, 44, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sahoo, K.C.; Soni, R.; Kalyanasundaram, M.; Singh, S.; Parashar, V.; Pathak, A.; Purohit, M.R.; Sabde, Y.; Stålsby Lundborg, C.; Sidney Annerstedt, K.; et al. Dynamics of Household Waste Segregation Behaviour in Urban Community in Ujjain, India: A Framework Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 7321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dhami, R.; Anand, F.; Sharma, R.; Dave, N. A Cleanliness Drive in India: Assessment on Its Psycho-Social Impact. Lib. Stud. 2020, 5, 101–116. [Google Scholar]
- Jain, A.; Wagner, A.; Snell-Rood, C.; Ray, I. Understanding Open Defecation in the Age of Swachh Bharat Abhiyan: Agency, Accountability, and Anger in Rural Bihar. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 1384. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Bosco, R.; Messina, G.; Aiello, B.; Guarducci, G.; Nante, N. The Structures and Activities of Health Promotion in the Italian NHS. Healthcare 2023, 11, 148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
Authors (Year) | Source of Data | Objectives | Study Setting and Sample Size | Data Analyses | Study Limitations |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nath, Yadav, and Kumari (2018) [20] | Student essays | Objectives were two-fold: (1) to determine perceptions of components of cleanliness for Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan; (2) to determine perceptions of how students can contribute toward cleanliness. | Medical undergraduates at a medical college in Northern Bharat. Sample size = 100. | Essays were analysed, with students being contacted to clarify ambiguous responses. Deductive coding, with overlapping codes extracted. Four themes were generated: (1) cleanliness practices, (2) behavioral change communication, (3) behavioral change interventions, and (4) behavior change legislations. | Unspecified. |
Curtis (2019) [21] | Structured interviews | To describe how the successes of Swachh Bharat Mission in rural Bharat from the perspective of government workers in order to provide guidance for other nations wishing to emulate these successes. | Across four states, Swachh Bharat Mission government workers at the district, state, and national levels. Sample size = 17. | Framework analyses conducted with the following steps: (1) familiarization, (2) identification of a thematic framework, (3) indexing, (4) charting, and (5) interpretation and mapping. Drawing upon the theory of change perspective of behavior-centred design. | Courtesy bias where there was a nearly completely positive response provided by interviewees. Need to study representatives from other states. Study focus was solely on sanitation in rural households across Bharat, with no focus on urban settings. |
Datta et al. (2020) [22] | Cross-sectional survey and focus group discussions | Objectives were twofold: (1) to determine knowledge and practices relating to hygiene, sanitation, and solid waste disposal among individuals residing in Agartala city; (2) to analyse factors impacting knowledge and practices. | For qualitative component: Three focus group discussions carried out in urban populations in Agartala Municipal Corporation in Tripura. Sample size = 24. | Pre-selected questions used for focus groups, with an experienced facilitator guiding discussions. Transcripts written and thereafter classified under codes/criteria and then presented in tabular format. | Unspecified. |
Paul et al. (2021) [23] | Focus groups and cross-sectional survey | Four primary objectives for this study: (1) Provide health-related awareness education. (2) Assess community attitudes toward types of health education. (3) Provide service relating to waste management to community members. (4) Assess skills of medical students in conducting qualitative research. | For qualitative component: 10 focus groups which included individuals of different ages across groups (from 13–19 to 65–72 years). Sample size = 77. Two medical students led each focus group. Occurred in a Bucho kalan village of Nathana block of Bathina district in Southern Punjab in June 2019 for six days. | For qualitative component: Focus groups focused on Swachh Bharat and its associated activities. Areas of discussion were for the following themes: (1) waste management, (2) Swachh Bharat and its related activities, and (3) community knowledge regarding hygiene and sanitation. | Unspecified. |
Jack, Anantharaman, and Browne (2022) [24] | Semi-structured interviews and small group interviews | To determine relations between infrastructure access, social mobility, and usage of resources and cleanliness in Mysore. | Adults interviewed in Mysore regarding cleanliness, with both semi-structured interviews (25) and small group interviews (4). Sample size = 28. Mean age: 37 (range: 21–73). | Four key themes were identified and expanded upon based on the findings of interviews. These were as follows: (1) cleanliness infrastructure, (2) reinforcement of existing hierarchies, (3) positive perceptions of cleanliness, and (4) difficulties of marginalized groups. | Unspecified. |
Khandare and Salve (2022) [25] | In-depth interviews and cross-sectional survey | To utilize Critical Caste Theory to determine vulnerabilities of municipality workers in Mumbai relating to disposal of waste. | For qualitative component: Interviewing workers who have had more than 5 years of experience as waste loaders and street sweepers at the municipal corporation of Mumbai, as well as key informants in waste management operations. Sample size = 22. | Critical Caste Theory was utilized to guide analyses of interviews; findings were broken down into themes: risk of ghettoization and determinants of health such as substance use, morbidity, and causes of death. Also focused on Swachh Bharat Mission, indebtedness, and voices for freedom. | Study utilized a cross-sectional design. Results may be seasonal variations that were not accounted for in this study. |
Sahoo et al. (2022) [26] | Focus group discussions and interviews | This study aimed to explore community members’ attitudes, capabilities, and opportunities in segregating household waste. | This study involved conducting 10 focus group discussions with inhabitants of Ujjain Municipal Corporation in Madhya Pradesh. Six focus groups with slum dwellers. Four with non-slum dwellers. There were also eight individual interviews to complement focus groups. Sample size = 78. Mean age = 41 years. There were 35 individuals from slums and 43 from non-slums (47 females and 31 males). | Focus group discussions featured the following content: (1) existing practice on household waste sorting and segregation, (2) opportunities, (3) abilities, and (4) motivation. MOAB theory and framework used to propose behavioral changes. | Unspecified. |
Dhami et al. (2020) [27] | Structured interviews | To understand the attitudes and motivations of Gandhinagar residents of the SBA and to determine key elements for the future of cleanliness drives regarding perceptions and attitudes. | Sample size = 1000. In total, there were 512 males and 394 females (out of which 94 did not respond to certain sections) across a variety of ages, genders, family types, and educational qualifications. All above 13 years old and residing in Gandhinagar, Gujarat. | Answers were divided into three categories of perception: enthusiastic acceptance, acceptance with reservation, and complete rejection. Afterwards, an analysis group was determined to formulate agreed-upon conclusions. | Does not account for religious perceptions that greatly influence overall views within India. Study is limited to one city where SBA is nation-wide |
Jain et al. (2020) [28] | Semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions | To evaluate perspectives on open defecation and latrine use, and the social, economical and political for these perspectives in rural Bihar to ultimately design better sanitation systems. | Sample size = 21. Semi-structured interviews with seven men and six women with variations in age (excluding minors under 18), gender, caste, household latrine ownership, occupation, and education. Also, two focused group discussions were carried out with four men each, and for this group, there were demographic variations but homogeneity with regard to caste, gender, and occupation. All were from rural Bihar. | Interviews were digitally recorded, translated and transcribed to English with two translators. Themes were identified and organized from the data used to develop codes, which were then discussed among researchers in order to refine the codes and group them into broader thematic categories via the qualitative data analysis software ATLAS.ti (version 8.3.1), with researchers then coming together again to ensure intercoder reliability. | Sample size was a small number of participants within one district in a low-income state, which was not representative of all of India with its cultural, social, economic, and political diversity. Therefore, authors were unable to make generalizable conclusions or provide policy recommendations. Study did not explore whether SBA-G successfully inspired positive change with respect to sanitation. Study did not include focus groups with women. |
Authors (Year) | Study Population and Sample Size | Summary of Key Findings Regarding Attitudes, Knowledge, and Perceptions of the Swachh Bharat Mission |
---|---|---|
Nath, Yadav, and Kumari (2018) [20] | 100 medical undergraduates at a Medical College in Northern Bharat. | Participants specified that initiatives should begin at the ground level, which is at home; community involvement is necessary for change. More societal focus should be on respecting laborers in cleaning garbage, but everyone should be involved in such efforts. Emphasis should also be placed on ensuring that waste goes into dustbins and reducing the usage of plastic. There is a need to create awareness among both kids and youth regarding cleaning Bharat, and this can be carried out with advertisements, movies, and school workshops and competitions to increase engagement. Can have special days/weekends/times of the month focused on this (e.g., first working day of each month and government holidays; focus on cleaning on government holidays). Other initiatives/efforts that should occur on a larger scale and that are related to ongoing efforts: tree planting, education for the community (such as using mass media sources), discouragement of open defecation, reforming syllabi in teaching institutions, having more awareness campaigns, ensuring the availability of alternative and efficient energy sources, increasing the availability of sanitation and waste disposal efforts, cleaning rivers and riverbeds, carrying out collaboration across industries (such as health, education, and irrigation departments), and ensuring the development of clearer legislation to ensure and improve cleanliness. |
Curtis (2019) [21] | 17 Government workers involved in the Swachh Bharat Mission working at the district, state, and national level. | Overwhelmingly positive responses for the outcomes and overall aims of the Swachh Bharat Mission. Stated that there were massive efforts by political leaders, which paid off greatly. Many stating that the successes of this initiative were extraordinary, with changes occurring in significant ways in the following domains: breaking administrative norms; involvement of mass media; disrupting undesirable social norms; on-the-ground work by government workers; utilization of technology; rapid action by bureaucrats; provision of appropriate support to those who want to make a difference; psychological changes with the mission’s success, motivating workers; and successfully changing peoples’ behaviors and ongoing efforts to build on successes. |
Datta et al. (2020) [22] | For qualitative component: 24 individuals living in urban Agartala Municipal Corporation in Tripura. All participants were males from different households. | Many individuals seem to be informed about the Swachh Bharat Mission, with information sources primarily being from television; other sources include newspapers and mobile phones. Individuals felt that Swachh Bharat can have an important role in making localities garbage-free, preventing the indiscriminate disposal of waste, and preventing the transmission of diarrheal disease (such as those from flies and mosquitoes). Areas of major concern continue to be the presence of garbage in public areas, public toilets remaining unclean, infrequent and unpredictable collection of household waste by those in the municipality, and the presence of clogged drains within municipalities. Participants stated that the indiscriminate throwing of garbage in market areas is rare since the initiation of Swachh Bharat and that drains in localities are cleaned much more frequently. Many felt that individual actions will have an important role in improving cleanliness and maintaining the successes of Swachh Bharat, and individuals are responsible for ensuring that they need to not throw garbage on ground areas and should not utilize drains and latrines for waste disposal. |
Paul et al. (2021) [23] | 77 individuals in 10 focus groups, which included individuals of different ages across groups (from 13–19 to 65–72 years). | Participants feel that, despite Swachh Bharat, waste disposal is inadequate. Cow dung is piling up in front of houses, kitchen water flows into roads, and plastic waste is inappropriately being disposed of in areas with drains. It was felt that too heavy of a focus was placed on the development of toilets, with minimal focus on waste disposal and drainage. Overall, individuals felt that the following factors contributed to a lack of adequate waste disposal: lack of commitment politically, ignorance of community regarding proper waste disposal, minimal involvement of females, and high costs of disposing waste. Increasing the awareness of waste management of all members of the communities is required; individuals need to demand adequate waste disposal practices from their politicians, and individuals need to be made aware of the methods of disposal, such as vermicomposting for cow dung and kitchen waste carried out by health workers and government workers. |
Jack, Anantharaman, and Browne (2022) [24] | 28 adults interviewed in Mysore regarding cleanliness, with both semi-structured interviews (25) and small group interviews (4). Mean age: 37 (range: 21–73). | Several respondents exhibited positive optimism regarding Swachh Bharat, feeling that the usage of advertisements in newspapers, radio stations, and railway stations has become a part of people’s memories. Respondents felt that this has resulted in individuals littering less, and therefore, they felt that Swachh Bharat has been a success in this regard. Individuals generally felt that public places were not clean, and a lack of education and awareness or just carrying out the wrong action was a reason for this. Some individuals expressed frustration regarding this. |
Khandare and Salve (2022) [25] | 22 adult workers interviewed who have had more than 5 years of experience as waste loaders and street sweepers at the municipal corporation of Mumbai, as well as key informants in waste management operations. | Swachh Bharat has been successful in increasing the awareness and consciousness of individuals regarding the need for cleanliness in society. However, it appears that vulnerable individuals (specifically, Safai Karamcharis) who work in waste cleaning continue to be stigmatized and excluded socially. It was reported by at least one participant that the circumstances for vulnerable individuals who clean waste have not changed since the initiation of Swachh Bharat. Safai Kamacharis are still stigmatized, barred from settings such as hotels, taunted and abused, and even assaulted. Despite Swachh Bharat, the occupation continues to not be respected. |
Sahoo et al. (2022) [26] | 78 individuals who were participants in 10 focus group discussions, and eight individual interviews to complement focus groups. Mean age = 41 years. In total, 35 individuals from slums and 43 from non-slums (47 females and 31 males). | Prior to the initiation of Swachh Bharat, few households were aware of waste segregation. Even those who were aware of it were not carrying it out anywhere near the level as after Swachh Bharat’s initiation. Since the initiation of Swachh Bharat, waste segregation has greatly improved, along with the overall cleanliness in communities. The attitudes and feelings of self-efficacy have seen gradual improvements. Individuals felt that, particularly for children, color-coded containers for separating waste were very helpful. Prior to the Swachh Bharat’s initiation, the color coding of containers occurred—but infrequently. It is now being applied much more, but there remains a clear need for an increase in color coding. Supervisors of waste collection inform community members how to segregate waste, but more of this is needed. Therefore, an emphasis is placed on needing to educate individuals more about waste segregation. This could occur with the use of television and other media sources. Children are learning about waste disposal from television sources. Some in slums felt that they should be better incentivized for separating wastes, whereas those not in slums more commonly felt that it was a civic duty to segregate waste. Incentives can be financial but can also comprise other means such as a certificate of appreciation. Others also felt that incentives could be a starting point for keeping areas clean. Some indication that cleanliness and waste segregation are becoming a social norm, and camera use should be initiated to ensure that people are properly segregating waste. Many waste disposal facilities tended not to operate on Sundays and holidays, which led to the build-up of waste, and this led to improper waste disposal in numerous areas. Due to a lack of garbage vans/collectors coming to households, some disposed of waste via improper methods, such as burning, dumping in sewers, and throwing out waste in the open. Some also felt that the proper disposal of waste was financially burdensome for reasons such as purchasing dustbins. |
Dhami et al. (2020) [27] | 1000 residents of Gandhinagar, Gujarat, with a variety of ages, genders, family types, and educational qualifications. | The majority of interviewees exhibited the enthusiastic acceptance of SBA’s promotional activities, political affiliations, and environmental impact and the peoples’ perception of the overall personal and societal change regarding this initiative. Regarding political affiliations, subjects assumed that SBA was a strategy to gain votes. With some, the involvement of any government official was viewed with great suspicion for clandestine activities or party propaganda. Others who expressed mixed scepticism were participants who were not too trusting but not entirely sceptical. Some were also completely trusting of the actions of the government. With respect to environmental impacts, celebrity involvement promoting SBA as an environmental concern was an underhanded attempt to gain improved public relations. There were mixed opinions regarding the environmental impacts, with some believing that visible and swift progress has been made, others believing in slow progress, and some stating no progress has been made in environmental cleanliness. For the promotional activities of the government, a positive response was illustrated when clear and active efforts were taken toward mobilizing masses as opposed to promoting hidden agendas for questionable reasons. With respect to personal and societal choices and changes, the most commonly emerging view was the substantial effort made toward realizing the aims and objectives of SBA. Some had a neutral opinion, and some also thought that there was a lack of effort, with no tangible results from the communal results of the SBA initiative. A large proportion of those who expressed that there were strong positive impacts on personal and societal choices were youth members; this can be attributed to their own contributions through the utilization of spreading SBA information through social media. |
Jain et al. (2020) [28] | 21 citizens of rural Bihar consisting of 7 men and 6 women with variations in age, gender, caste, household latrine ownership, occupation, and education. Eight men with demographic variations who exhibited homogeneity with regard to caste, gender, and occupation. | The latrine construction subsidy of INR 12,000 is too little for the construction and ongoing maintenance of adequately sided latrines. Frustration toward SBA and the government was expressed in terms of not understanding the financial concerns of people when forced to promote cleanliness with no money and the lack of proper waste management carried out by the government. SBA-G incentive delivery methods were not practical, with construction first needed before payment; however, poor people were unable to provide upfront costs. Fears of corruption in not receiving the full subsidy. Uncertain of how subsidy payments are managed, with some thinking that 95% of the ward needs latrines before payment is given. Some believe that payments will take up to five years. Distrust toward the government, influencing the perceptions of SBA-G. In reference to previous development initiatives, some believed that development was prioritized in urban centres first and that governments were less willing to help rural areas. Anger and resentment toward the government influenced their willingness and ability to trust SBA-G. |
Key Finding | Implications for Policy |
---|---|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. |
© 2025 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Varshney, K.; Shet, P.; Hoosenally, M. Cleaning Bharat (India): A Scoping Review of Perceptions Regarding How Swachh Bharat Can Continue to Improve Hygiene Across the Nation. Hygiene 2025, 5, 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene5020017
Varshney K, Shet P, Hoosenally M. Cleaning Bharat (India): A Scoping Review of Perceptions Regarding How Swachh Bharat Can Continue to Improve Hygiene Across the Nation. Hygiene. 2025; 5(2):17. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene5020017
Chicago/Turabian StyleVarshney, Karan, Pavan Shet, and Mariyah Hoosenally. 2025. "Cleaning Bharat (India): A Scoping Review of Perceptions Regarding How Swachh Bharat Can Continue to Improve Hygiene Across the Nation" Hygiene 5, no. 2: 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene5020017
APA StyleVarshney, K., Shet, P., & Hoosenally, M. (2025). Cleaning Bharat (India): A Scoping Review of Perceptions Regarding How Swachh Bharat Can Continue to Improve Hygiene Across the Nation. Hygiene, 5(2), 17. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene5020017