The Impact of COVID-19 on the Emotion of People Living with and without HIV
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Participants
2.2. Sample Size
2.3. Data Collection Tool
2.4. Study Procedure
2.5. Data Analyses
3. Results
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Total | Frustration or Boredom | Anxiety | Depression | Loneliness | Anger | Grief or Feeling of Loss | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 16866 | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | |
n (%) | 4515 (26.8) | 12,351 (73.2) | 4352 (25.8) | 12,514 (74.2) | 2477 (14.7) | 14,389 (85.3) | 2869 (17.0) | 13,997 (83.0) | 1866 (11.1) | 15,000 (88.9) | 1513 (9.0) | 15,353 (91.0) | |
n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | n (%) | ||
Age mean (SD) | 35.3 (12.9) | 33.1 (12.5) | 36.1 (13.0) | 35.7 (13.3) | 35.1 (12.8) | 32.8 (11.9) | 35.7 (13.0) | 32.4 (12.3) | 35.9 (13.0) | 34.2 (13.4) | 35.4 (12.8) | 34.4 (13.3) | 15,353 (12.9) |
Sex at birth | |||||||||||||
Male | 6366 (37.7) | 1575 (24.7) | 4791 (75.3) | 1322 (20.8) | 5044 (79.2) | 797 (12.5) | 5569 (87.5) | 959 (15.1) | 5407 (84.9) | 567 (8.9) | 5799 (91.1) | 428 (6.7) | 5938 (93.3) |
Female | 10,500 (62.3) | 2940 (28.0) | 7560 (72.0) | 3030 (28.9) | 7470 (71.1) | 1680 (16.0) | 8820 (84.0) | 1910 (18.2) | 8590 (81.8) | 1299 (12.4) | 9201 (87.6) | 1085 (10.3) | 9415 (89.7) |
Educational level | |||||||||||||
None | 309 (1.8) | 25 (8.1) | 284 (91.9) | 37 (12.0) | 272 (88.0) | 40 (12.9) | 269 (87.1) | 31 (10.0) | 278 (90.0) | 14 (4.5) | 295 (95.5) | 13 (4.2) | 296 (95.8) |
Primary | 398 (2.4) | 51 (12.8) | 347 (87.2) | 76 (19.1) | 322 (80.9) | 59 (14.8) | 339 (85.2) | 51 (12.8) | 347 (87.2) | 29 (7.3) | 369 (92.7) | 19 (4.8) | 379 (95.2) |
Secondary | 2980 (17.7) | 940 (31.5) | 2040 (68.5) | 790 (26.5) | 2190 (73.5) | 537 (18.0) | 2443 (82.0) | 640 (21.5) | 2340 (78.5) | 423 (14.2) | 2557 (85.8) | 287 (9.6) | 2693 (90.4) |
College/university | 13,179 (78.1) | 3499 (26.5) | 9680 (73.5) | 3449 (26.2) | 9730 (73.8) | 1841 (14.0) | 11,338 (86.0) | 2147 (16.3) | 11,032 (83.7) | 1400 (10.6) | 11,779 (89.4) | 1194 (9.1) | 11,985 (90.9) |
Employment status | |||||||||||||
Retiree | 693 (4.1) | 166 (24.0) | 527 (76.0) | 201 (29.0) | 492 (71.0) | 72 (10.4) | 621 (89.6) | 94 (13.6) | 599 (86.4) | 90 (13.0) | 603 (87.0) | 72 (10.4) | 621 (89.6) |
Student | 3750 (22.2) | 1374 (36.6) | 2376 (63.4) | 1030 (27.5) | 2720 (72.5) | 676 (18.0) | 3074 (82.0) | 885 (23.6) | 2865 (76.4) | 553 (14.7) | 3197 (85.3) | 440 (11.7) | 3310 (88.3) |
Employed | 9787 (58.0) | 2338 (23.9) | 7449 (76.1) | 2531 (25.9) | 7256 (74.1) | 1245 (12.7) | 8542 (87.3) | 1389 (14.2) | 8398 (85.8) | 926 (9.5) | 8861 (90.5) | 759 (7.8) | 9028 (92.2) |
Unemployed | 2636 (15.6) | 637 (24.2) | 1999 (75.8) | 590 (22.4) | 2046 (77.6) | 484 (18.4) | 2152 (81.6) | 501 (19.0) | 2135 (81.0) | 297 (11.3) | 2339 (88.7) | 242 (9.2) | 2394 (90.8) |
Country income | |||||||||||||
level | |||||||||||||
LIC | 404 (2.4) | 98 (24.3) | 306 (75.7) | 106 (26.2) | 298 (73.8) | 50 (12.4) | 354 (87.6) | 64 (15.8) | 340 (84.2) | 28 (6.9) | 376 (93.1) | 44 (10.9) | 360 (89.1) |
LMIC | 8935 (53.0) | 1978 (22.1) | 6957 (77.9) | 1666 (18.6) | 7269 (81.4) | 1057 (11.8) | 7878 (88.2) | 1275 (14.3) | 7660 (85.7) | 693 (693) | 8242 (92.2) | 537 (6.0) | 8398 (94.0) |
UMIC | 3449 (20.4) | 1116 (32.4) | 2333 (67.6) | 1226 (35.5) | 2223 (64.5) | 636 (18.4) | 2813 (81.6) | 606 (17.6) | 2843 (82.4) | 591 (591) | 2858 (82.9) | 419 (12.1) | 3030 (87.9) |
HIC | 4078 (24.2) | 1323 (32.4) | 2755 (67.6) | 1354 (33.2) | 2724 (66.8) | 734 (18.0) | 3344 (82.0) | 924 (22.7) | 3154 (77.3) | 554 (13.6) | 3524 (86.4) | 513 (12.6) | 3565 (87.4) |
Living with HIV | |||||||||||||
No | 15,961 (94.6) | 4327 (27.1) | 11,634 (72.9) | 4114 (25.8) | 11,847 (74.2) | 2317 (14.5) | 13,644 (85.5) | 2721 (17.0) | 13,240 (83.0) | 1782 (11.2) | 14,179 (88.8) | 1460 (9.1) | 14,501 (90.9) |
Yes | 905 (5.4) | 188 (20.8) | 717 (79.2) | 238 (26.3) | 667 (73.7) | 160 (17.7) | 745 (82.3) | 148 (16.4) | 757 (83.6) | 84 (9.3) | 821 (90.7) | 53 (5.9) | 852 (94.1) |
Variables | Frustration or Boredom | Anxiety | Depression | Loneliness | Anger | Grief or Feeling of Loss |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AoR (95% CI) (p Values) | AoR; 95% CI (p Values) | AoR; 95% CI (p Values) | AoR; 95% CI (p Values) | AoR; 95% CI (p Values) | AoR; 95% CI (p Values) | |
Age | 0.982; 0.979–0.986; p < 0.001 | 0.999; 0.995–1.003; p = 0.582 | 0.978; 0.973–0.983; p < 0.001 | 0.978; 0.974–0.983; p < 0.001 | 0.993; 0.988–0.998; p = 0.006 | 0.995; 0.989–1.000; p = 0.055 |
Sex at birth | ||||||
Male | 0.918; 0.853–0.988; p = 0.023 | 0.660; 0.612–0.712; p < 0.001 | 0.822; 0.749–0.903; p < 0.001 | 0.874; 0.801–0.953; p = 0.002 | 0.768; 0.691–0.854; p < 0.001 | 0.679; 0.603–0.765; p < 0.001 |
Female | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
Educational level | ||||||
No formal education | 0.305; 0.201–0.462; p < 0.001 | 0.549; 0.386–0.782; p = 0.001 | 0.928; 0.656–1.312; p = 0.673 | 0.598; 0.408–0.877; p = 0.008 | 0.512; 0.296–0.885; p = 0.016 | 0.576; 0.326–1.017; p = 0.057 |
Primary | 0.469; 0.347–0.634; p < 0.001 | 0.808; 0.623–1.047; p = 0.107 | 1.128; 0.846–1.503; p = 0.413 | 0.802; 0.592–1.085; p = 0.153 | 0.775; 0.526–1.143; p = 0.198 | 0.614; 0.383–0.982; p = 0.042 |
Secondary | 1.086; 0.990–1.192; p = 0.080 | 0.979; 0.889–1.078; p = 0.665 | 1.162; 1.038–1.301; p = 0.009 | 1.157; 1.041–1.286; p = 0.007 | 1.215; 1.073–1.376; p = 0.002 | 0.941; 0.815–1.086; 0.404 |
College/university | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
Employment status | ||||||
Retiree | 1.354; 1.100–1.666; p = 0.004 | 0.934; 0.766–1.137; p = 0.495 | 1.125; 0.849–1.490; p = 0.413 | 1.489; 1.153–1.923; p = 0.002 | 1.267; 0.967–1.659; p = 0.086 | 1.313; 0.976–1.765; p = 0.072 |
Student | 1.396; 1.262–1.545; p < 0.001 | 1.054; 0.949–1.171; p = 0.328 | 1.068; 0.942–1.212; p = 0.305 | 1.337; 1.189–1.503; p < 0.001 | 1.393; 1.210–1.605; p < 0.001 | 1.452; 1.245–1.694; p < 0.001 |
Employed | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
Unemployed | 1.037; 0.932–1.153; p = 0.508 | 0.850; 0.762–0.947; p = 0.003 | 1.409; 1.247–1.592; p < 0.001 | 1.356; 1.203–1.527; p < 0.001 | 1.221; 1.056–1.412; p = 0.007 | 1.259; 1.074–1.476; p = 0.004 |
Country income | ||||||
level | ||||||
LICs | 0.700; 0.551–0.889; p = 0.003 | 0.727; 0.576–0.917; p = 0.007 | 0.649; 0.476–0.884; p = 0.006 | 0.671; 0.507–0.888; p = 0.005 | 0.503; 0.339–0.747; p = 0.001 | 0.888; 0.639–1.233; p = 0.478 |
LMICs | 0.561; 0.514–0.611; p < 0.001 | 0.452; 0.414–0.493; p < 0.001 | 0.509; 0.457–0.568; p < 0.001 | 0.499; 0.452–0.551; p < 0.001 | 0.509; 0.449–0.576; p < 0.001 | 0.437; 0.382–0.498; p < 0.001 |
UMICs | 0.977; 0.885–1.078; p = 0.645 | 1.088; 0.988–1.198; p = 0.087 | 1.010; 0.897–1.138; p = 0.869 | 0.700; 0.623–0.786; p < 0.001 | 1.273; 1.121–1.446; p < 0.001 | 0.918; 0.799–1.056; p = 0.232 |
HICs | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
Living with HIV | ||||||
No | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 | 1.000 |
Yes | 1.068; 0.898–1.269; p = 0.459 | 1.644; 1.398–1.933; p < 0.001 | 1.798; 1.489–2.171; p < 0.001 | 1.350; 1.115–1.635; p = 0.002 | 1.267; 0.995–1.615; p = 0.055 | 1.025; 0.764–1.376; p = 0.869 |
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Lusher, J.; Abeldaño Zuñiga, R.A.; Virtanen, J.I.; Ellakany, P.; Yousaf, M.A.; Osamika, B.E.; Gaffar, B.; Lawal, F.B.; Khalid, Z.; Aly, N.M.; et al. The Impact of COVID-19 on the Emotion of People Living with and without HIV. Hygiene 2023, 3, 33-44. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene3010005
Lusher J, Abeldaño Zuñiga RA, Virtanen JI, Ellakany P, Yousaf MA, Osamika BE, Gaffar B, Lawal FB, Khalid Z, Aly NM, et al. The Impact of COVID-19 on the Emotion of People Living with and without HIV. Hygiene. 2023; 3(1):33-44. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene3010005
Chicago/Turabian StyleLusher, Joanne, Roberto Ariel Abeldaño Zuñiga, Jorma I. Virtanen, Passent Ellakany, Muhammad Abrar Yousaf, Bamidele Emmanuel Osamika, Balgis Gaffar, Folake Barakat Lawal, Zumama Khalid, Nourhan M. Aly, and et al. 2023. "The Impact of COVID-19 on the Emotion of People Living with and without HIV" Hygiene 3, no. 1: 33-44. https://doi.org/10.3390/hygiene3010005