Exploring the Garden Design and Underlying Philosophy of Lion Grove as a Chan Garden During the Yuan Dynasty

Abstract

Lion Grove was established in 1342 during the Yuan Dynasty and is one of the four most famous classical gardens in China. It was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. Although Lion Grove is now regarded as a private garden representing the culture of Confucian scholars, it was originally a Chan Buddhist garden during its inception in the Yuan Dynasty. This study examines the natural landscapes of Lion Grove at its inception, focusing on four main aspects: the philosophy of nature, planning intent, creators, and the philosophical ideas they represent. Key findings include the following: Firstly, Lion Grove’s attitude towards nature is rooted in China’s indigenous culture, making it both a physical expression of Chan philosophy and a space reflecting the scholar–bureaucrats’ vision of an ideal landscape. Secondly, from the perspective of landscape planning, the Lion Grove of the Yuan Dynasty placed greater emphasis on natural elements compared to its modern counterpart, with rock landscapes serving as the core element throughout the garden. Thirdly, hermitic philosophy emerged as a significant cultural theme alongside Chan Buddhism during the Yuan Dynasty. Fourthly, the landscape elements of Lion Grove symbolize Chan Buddhist wisdom and the hermit’s idealism, with poetry playing a key role in conveying these cultural ideals, preserving the site’s early philosophical significance.

1. Introduction

Lion Grove in Suzhou, China ranks among China’s Four Great Classical Gardens and was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. Lion Grove was initially built as a Chan Buddhist monastery (1342); however, over the course of more than 600 years (

Table 1. Historical evolution of Lion Grove.

Dynasty	Year	Event
Yuan	1341	Weize ended his 12-year seclusion and settled in Suzhou, residing in the original site area of Lion Grove.
	1342	Weize and his disciples purchased the plot of land where he resided, officially establishing Lion Grove there in that year.
	1350	Weize Nirvana.
	1352	Lion Grove was renamed Bodhi Zhengzong Temple.
Ming	1368	The jurisdiction of Lion Grove was transferred from Weize’s disciples to the abbot of Chengtian Nengren temple.
	1372	Due to the turmoil of dynastic changes, Lion Grove has become desolate, but its buildings and garden remain intact.
	1403–1424	The buildings of Lion Grove had collapsed, the plants had decayed, and the pond had dried up, leaving only some rockeries.
	1522–1566	The garden area in Lion Grove was occupied by powerful aristocrats, while the remaining areas were taken up by ordinary citizens, leading to the separation of the temple area and the garden.
	1589–1592	Lion Grove was purchased by a monk named Ming Xing, and the buildings and gardens were rebuilt, named according to the names of various landscape elements during the Yuan Dynasty.
Qing	1648–1654	A hermit named Chen Rixin added buildings to Lion Grove and donated Buddhist scriptures, which rejuvenated its popularity.
	1662–1722	During this period, Lion Grove underwent several changes in ownership. Since then, no Buddhist monks have become the owners of Lion Grove, and it gradually transformed into a private garden.
	1763–	Lion Grove was purchased by a scholar–bureaucrat named Huang Xuan and renamed She Garden. For the next 170 years, Lion Grove belonged to the Huang family.
Republic of China	1918	Lion Grove was purchased by a wealthy merchant named Bei Renyuan, who restored the name of Lion Grove and renamed its landscape elements according to their Yuan Dynasty names.
	1941–1943	Lion Grove was occupied by the Wang Jingwei government.
The People’s Republic of China	1953–	Lion Grove was nationalized and opened to the public.
	2000	Lion Grove was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

), it has undergone numerous historical changes and changes in ownership. During the 28th year of the Qianlong 乾隆 reign in the Qing Dynasty (1763), the garden was acquired by Huang Xuan 黃軒 (1702–1779), a scholar–bureaucrat, who transformed it into a private estate. In 1917, the merchant Bei Runsheng 貝潤生 (1870–1947) purchased Lion Grove and introduced several new features, including stone boats, covered corridors, and ancestral halls, all of which have been preserved to this day (Figure 1). Currently, the buildings are mainly located in the east, and the garden in the west. The pond occupies nearly half of the garden while the rest part is known as ‘Rockery Kingdom’, which emphasizes guiding visitors through rock mazes to appreciate the esthetic beauty of rock formations.

Although Lion Grove has transitioned into a traditional Chinese private garden, reflecting the tastes of scholars and literati after changing ownership among merchants, the natural landscape features of the garden remain intrinsically linked to its original inception in the Yuan Dynasty [1].

Modern scholars have conducted research on the garden planning of Lion Grove during the Yuan Dynasty [2]. However, the study by Tian and Fang (2017) primarily focused on the transformation of its landscape features from the Yuan Dynasty to the Republic of China era [2], which resulted in the insufficient discussion of the influence of the Yuan Dynasty on the garden. Therefore, the planning of Lion Grove’s natural landscapes during the Yuan Dynasty requires further investigation with additional historical materials. These studies also highlight how the names of these features not only link to Chan Buddhist teachings and narratives [3,4] but also symbolize the integration of Chan culture with the leisure culture of Chinese emperors and scholars [5]. While Zou (2022) highlights the impact of emperors and literati on the garden, his focus is primarily on figures from the Ming and Qing Dynasties, rather than those from the Yuan Dynasty when the garden was originally established [5]. Therefore, further investigation is needed regarding the usage of Lion Grove’s natural landscapes by historical figures during the Yuan Dynasty, as well as the philosophical meanings attributed to these landscapes. In addition, aside from the few modern studies on Lion Grove during the Yuan Dynasty mentioned above, the majority of contemporary research focuses on Lion Grove as a private garden after the Qing Dynasty [6,7,8,9,10]. Thus, the landscape design of Lion Grove during the Yuan Dynasty requires further research and exploration.

While previous studies have examined the evolution of Lion Grove’s landscape characteristics across historical periods or focused on its development as a private garden in later dynasties, this study will specifically investigate the garden’s original Yuan Dynasty design—a period that remains insufficiently explored in current scholarship. By analyzing the relationship between Chan Buddhist philosophy and the garden’s natural landscape design during its formative stage, this research aims to understand how these cultural influences shaped Lion Grove’s foundational spatial organization. Unlike prior works addressing broader historical transformations or later stylistic adaptations, the present study will examine the designers’ conceptual approach and the symbolic significance of natural elements in expressing Chan principles, thereby contributing new perspectives to the garden’s early philosophical foundations and design methodology. Through this focused investigation, the research may reveal additional cultural dimensions that influenced the garden’s creation.

Therefore, this study aims to address the following research questions:

Main question: How did the synthesis of Chan Buddhist philosophy and other philosophical ideals of the Yuan Dynasty specifically shape the landscape design principles and spatial composition of Lion Grove during its inception?

Sub-questions: First, what role did natural elements, particularly rockeries, play as vehicles for these philosophical expressions, in contrast to architectural elements? Second, how do the creators’ personal backgrounds and philosophies manifest in the garden’s specific scenic spots and their naming?

To answer these questions, this study will investigate the cultural background of the era, the overall planning, creators of natural elements, and philosophical meanings of Lion Grove’s natural landscapes based on historical documents and paintings from the Yuan Dynasty.

2. Methods

The study utilized an ancient text titled Shizilin Jisheng Ji (師子林紀勝集) to investigate historical facts pertinent to the research questions. This anthology is divided into two parts: the first was authored by Shi Daoxun 釋道恂 (birth and death dates unknown), a Chan monk from the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), and the second was penned by Xu Lifang 徐立方 (birth and death dates unknown), a scholar from the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911). Shizilin Jisheng Ji belongs to the categories of historical poetry and local scenic literature. Previous studies have drawn on the poems in this classical text to analyze the garden’s planning, as well as the identities of its visitors and their psychological states during their visits [1,2,3,4,5]. Shizilin Jisheng Ji compiles literary works about Lion Grove spanning from the Yuan Dynasty to the late Qing Dynasty. The original manuscript of Shizilin Jisheng Ji is preserved in the Suzhou Museum. Therefore, this study is based on historical documents from the Yuan Dynasty section of the Shizilin Jisheng Ji, investigating the site selection, overall planning, and the design, use, and philosophical significance of the landscape elements of Lion Grove during the Yuan Dynasty.

Ruhai 如海 (birth and death dates unknown), the second abbot of Lion Grove, commissioned Xu Ben 徐賁 (1335–1380) to capture the appearance of Lion Grove during the Yuan Dynasty. In 1373, Xu Ben completed a series of twelve paintings, known as the ‘Twelve Scenic Spots of Lion Grove,’ which highlight the most iconic views within the garden. These paintings are currently housed at the National Palace Museum in Taipei. Therefore, this study examined the natural landscape elements depicted in these paintings as supporting visual evidence to investigate the research subject of this study.

The study employed thematic analysis to identify recurring philosophical themes (e.g., Chan Buddhism, hermit ideals) in Shizilin Jisheng Ji, supplemented by discourse analysis of poetic texts to interpret symbolic meanings and authorial intentions.

Historical documents and Xu Ben’s paintings provided cross-validation for landscape reconstructions. These paintings were analyzed through iconographic analysis to identify key natural and architectural elements, complemented by compositional analysis to examine spatial relationships. This dual approach revealed how visual representations aligned with textual records of Chan Buddhist symbolism and hermit ideals in Shizilin Jisheng Ji.

3. The Idea of Nature in Yuan Dynasty’s Lion Grove

In India, the birthplace of Buddhism, it was customary for Buddhist monks to construct stupas or cave temples to house sacred relics and to meditate before these relics as a part of their spiritual discipline [11]. When Buddhism was introduced to China, it merged with native cultural elements, giving rise to Chan Buddhism. This new school of Buddhism is thought to have integrated aspects of Confucianism and Daoism [12]. Under the influence of Confucian and Daoist veneration of nature, Chan Buddhism developed a distinctive form of meditation known as ‘Gongan (公案 koan)’ meditation. This practice incorporated natural elements such as plants, rocks, and water into meditation, aligning the contemplation of Buddhist principles with visual engagement with the natural environment [13]. This innovative approach not only reflects the Confucian and Daoist appreciation of nature but also marks a divergence from the meditation practices of early Indian Buddhism, thereby highlighting the unique Chinese interpretation of nature worship as a theoretically fundamental aspect of Chan Buddhist meditation.

During the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) Dynasties, Chan Buddhism reached its zenith in China. However, the rise in the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368) saw the Mongol rulers favoring Tibetan Buddhism. In the 25th year of the Yuan era (1288), a significant event, the Jiao Chan Ting Bian (教禪廷辯, Debate on the Teachings of Chan and Tibetan Buddhism), was held under the auspices of the Mongolian leadership. The resolution of this debate positioned Tibetan Buddhism as superior, dictating that its teachings should take precedence over those of Chan Buddhism (教冠於禪之上). Consequently, Chan Buddhism experienced a period of suppression during the Yuan Dynasty. Many Chan monks chose to withdraw into seclusion, migrate from northern to southern China, or even relocate to Japan to continue their practices [3]. This period further strengthened the integration of Chan meditation with nature, as monks’ increasingly emphasized meditation practices that harnessed the tranquility of natural environments, particularly in secluded locations. As a result, conducting Chan meditation in nature became prevalent, providing sanctuaries for monks to deepen their spiritual practices and seek enlightenment.

Tianru Weize 天如惟則 (1286–1350), the creator of Lion Grove (獅子林), was a monk from the Linji School (臨濟宗) of Chan Buddhism during a time when the school faced suppression under the Yuan Dynasty. Weize took his vows as a Chan monk at the age of 18. His vision for Lion Grove was deeply influenced by his personal journey. Between 1329 and 1341, Weize lived in seclusion in Songjiang 松江 (now Shanghai), dedicating himself to deep meditative practice. In 1342, he relocated to Suzhou where he established Lion Grove. His primary goal for the garden was to disseminate the Chan teachings and practices that he had refined during his 12 years of reclusion, creating a space that embodied the principles and esthetics of Chan Buddhism [14].

Weize described the reason for selecting the location of Lion Grove in his diary:

There was a plot of land along the Eastern River in Suzhou, where the ancient trees, bamboo groves, and stones gave me a sense of being deep in the mountains. This environment was serene and captivating to me, so I purchased this land along with my disciples to construct Lion Grove.

[15]

Based on the observations above, it can be discerned that Weize’s preference for constructing the landscape of Lion Grove is deeply rooted in the social milieu of the Yuan Dynasty. The oppression of Chan Buddhism during the Yuan Dynasty led Weize to adopt a passive form of natural seclusion. However, after a period of time, this passivity ultimately transformed into an active engagement with nature, leading him to choose a site where he could immerse himself in natural settings amidst the urban environment.

Weize used the garden for meditation practice and teaching his disciples. He often strolled through the garden with his cane, overseeing his disciples practicing meditation in Dharma Hall. He likened his cane to Buddhist teachings and the garden plants to his disciples [16]. In the temple, Weize appreciated the spring rain, mist, ferns, and pine trees he had planted, composing poems inspired by these scenes [17]. At night, Weize guided his disciples in meditation using natural elements such as moonlight, springs, rain, and tea, to realize a profound correlation between a steadfast mindset and nature [18]. Thus, the application of natural elements permeated every aspect of Chan practice in Lion Grove.

Lion Grove also served as a venue for interaction with visitors, frequently attracting numerous scholar–bureaucrats. Gao Qi 高啓 (1336–1374), who resigned from his official position in the Hanlin Academy (Imperial Academy) to live a reclusive life in Suzhou, remarked:

A clear pond occupies the front part of Lion Grove, while the back part features a small earthen mound with many uniquely shaped stones, beautiful bamboo groves, and various plants intertwining…… This garden is both a place for recreation and rest, making visitors feel as if they are in the mountains and forests, completely forgetting the close proximity to bustling Suzhou……The clear stream and artificial rockeries both reflect Chan’s principles and can inspire enlightenment.

[19]

It is evident from this that in Lion Grove, nature is utilized to express the thoughts of diverse social strata. The leisurely and refined sentiments of scholar–bureaucrats are integrated into the garden elements. Simultaneously, the ideas of Chan Buddhism and Confucianism represented by scholar–bureaucrats converge, making Lion Grove not only a physical manifestation of Chan philosophy but also a venue that conveys the scholar–bureaucrats’ aspirations for an ideal landscape.

This synthesis of Confucian, Daoist, and Chan Buddhist philosophies in Lion Grove’s design reflects a paradigm shift in meditative spatial practice. Unlike Indian Buddhism’s emphasis on detachment from sensory stimuli, Yuan Dynasty Chan Buddhism developed a unique approach where the garden’s physical layout actively structured contemplative experience. The rockeries, designed to resemble lions in various postures, served not merely as symbolic representations but as focal points for meditation. Historical accounts describe monks practicing huatou (话头) while contemplating specific rock formations like Lion Peak, their meditation guided by the stones’ dynamic forms and the surrounding natural elements [1]. The garden’s design embodied the Chinese philosophical concept of ‘borrowing scenery’ (借景), where carefully framed views of rocks, water, and plants created self-contained contemplative microcosms within the urban environment. This approach differed fundamentally from earlier Buddhist traditions that relied on large-scale sacred geography (e.g., pilgrimage circuits). Instead of requiring practitioners to travel to distant mountains, Lion Grove brought the essence of wilderness into its compact layout, allowing meditation to occur through intimate engagement with carefully composed natural elements—a practice that resonated with both Chan Buddhist enlightenment-seeking and the Confucian and Taoist ideal of ‘harmony between nature and humanity’ (天人合一) [12].

4. The Overall Landscape Planning Intentions of Lion Grove During the Yuan Dynasty

During the Yuan Dynasty, a scholar, Wang Yi 王彝 (?—1374), provided a detailed description of the original garden environment in his travelog, You Shizilin Ji (遊師子林記), in Shizilin Jisheng Ji, written in 1371 [20]. This travelog describes the locations of water landscapes, plants, buildings, the position and shape of the rockery, and the direction of the stream and surrounding scenery of the garden, providing the author with references to reconstruct the site plan of Lion Grove created by Weize (Figure 2).

The reconstructed plan (Figure 2) was developed through cross-referencing Wang Yi’s 1371 travelog You Shizilin Ji with Xu Ben’s 1373 paintings. Key elements (water features, rockeries, buildings) were mapped based on their relative positions and proportions described in the text, while spatial relationships were verified against the paintings’ compositional logic. Discrepancies were resolved by prioritizing the earliest Yuan Dynasty records in Shizilin Jisheng Ji.

From a comparison between Figure 1 and Figure 2, it can be observed that the Lion Grove of the Yuan Dynasty and the contemporary Lion Grove have undergone significant changes. The former features natural landscape elements that occupy a substantial portion of the garden, whereas the latter, in contrast, exhibits a notable increase in architectural elements.

When comparing the twelve scenic spots (Figure 2) of the Yuan Dynasty with those depicted in Figure 1, it is evident that Lion Grove currently boasts 21 scenic spots, marking an increase of 9 compared to the Yuan Dynasty. From the naming of these scenic spots, only seven (Lionf Peak, Chan Wo, Lixue Hall, Woyun Chamber, Zhibai Pavilion, Xiaofeihong Stone Bridge, and Wenmei Pavilion; Figure 1 marked with *) in the current Lion Grove retain their Yuan Dynasty names, but their appearance and locations are different from those in the Yuan Dynasty (Figure 2). Furthermore, apart from these 7 scenic spots, the remaining 14 scenic spots in the garden today were added during or after the Ming Dynasty, and these 14 scenic spots no longer carry implications of Chan Buddhism (

Table 2. The implications of the fourteen new scenic spots in the current Lion Grove.

The Current Lion Grove
	Scenic Spots	Implication
1	ShuangXiangXian Hall (雙香仙館)	‘Shuangxiang’ means ‘two fragrances’, and ‘Xian’ refers to deities or immortal beings in Taoism. This is a building for smelling fragrances of plum blossoms and lotus flowers here.
2	Zhen Qu Pavilion (真趣亭)	The Qianlong Emperor visited here, symbolizing his interest in pleasure.
3	Lotus Hall (荷花廳)	Used for appreciating the lotus flowers in the pond.
4	Zheng Qi Pavilion (正氣亭)	Used to commemorate Wen Tianxiang, a hero who resisted the Yuan Dynasty in the Song Dynasty, and to promote patriotism.
5	Yubei Pavilion (御碑亭)	To commemorate Emperor Qianlong.
6	Xiuzhu Pavilion(修竹閣)	A place that symbolizes the humility of bamboo and is used to appreciate bamboo, rocks, and water scenery.
7	Yan Yu Hall (燕譽堂)	The term ‘Yan Yu’ symbolizes a spirit that is not attached to material conditions but seeks happiness as the ultimate goal.
8	Xiaofang Hall (小方聽)	A place for qin (musical instrument), chess, calligraphy, and painting, symbolizing talent and entertainment.
9	Nine Lion Peak (九獅峰)	Nine replicas of the Lion Peak, each with a consistent meaning.
10	Ancient Five Pine Garden (古五松園)	Used to appreciate pine trees and commemorate the Qin Dynasty.
11	Ting Tao pavilion (聽濤亭)	‘Ting Tao’ means listening to the sound of waves. This pavilion is used for viewing the artificial waterfall in the garden and appreciating its sound.
12	Hu Xin Pavilion (湖心亭)	Located in the center of the pond, it is used to appreciate the scenery of the pond and lotus flowers in different seasons.
13	Shan Pavilion (扇亭)	‘Shan’ means banana leaf fan. This pavilion is used to commemorate the pure and unfettered mindset of Wen Tianxiang from the Song Dynasty.
14	Stone Boat (石舫)	Used for interacting with the waterscape and lotus flowers.

). It is thus evident that the landscape significance of the contemporary Lion Grove has undergone significant changes compared to that of the Yuan Dynasty.

The Yuan Dynasty scholar–bureaucrat Weisu 危素 (1303–1372), a close friend of Weize, often visited Lion Grove. While serving at the Hanlin Academy from 1341 to 1351, Weisu composed a biography titled Shizilin Ji 師子林記 recorded in Shizilin Jisheng Ji, in honor of Weize’s creation of the garden. In this work, Weisu offered a meticulous account of the garden’s origins, its geographical features, and its landscape design at that time. The text reads [21]:

Lion Grove is the hermitage of Tianru Weize. After Weize completed his training under his master Zhongfeng Mingben 中峰明本, he lived in seclusion in the Nine Mountains in Songjiang, where he has resided for over a decade. In Suzhou, his disciples purchased a plot of land in the city, which had originally been a villa of the Song dynasty aristocracy. The site, densely forested, remained cool and refreshing even in the height of summer, resembling the tranquility of a remote mountain forest despite its location amidst the bustling city. As a result, Weize’s disciple decided to construct the Lion Grove on this land and invited Weize to reside there. Although there are not many buildings, is arranged within the serene natural landscape of the garden, featuring a Dharma hall, monk’s quarters, meditation rooms, and guest halls, all of which adhere to a certain order and structure. One prominent feature of the garden is a raised area surrounded by a collection of scenic rocks. Among these rocks, the tallest and most uniquely shaped, resembling a lion and centrally located, is called Lion Peak, while the rocks flanking it are named Hanhui Peak, Tuyue Peak, Liyu Peak, and Angxiao Peak. The remaining rocks are stacked together in various formations, rising and falling, resembling a group of lions. It is for this reason that the monastery was named ‘Lion Grove.’ The name also has its origins in Weize’s master Zhongfeng Mingben’s spiritual practice at Mount Tianmu, where there is a rock called ‘Lion Stone.’ To honor his master and the source of his own teachings, Weize named the garden ‘Lion Grove’ in memory of Zhongfeng Mingben. In front of Liyu Peak stands the Qifeng Pavilion, which contains stone benches that can accommodate six to seven people. A bridge, known as Xiaofeihong Stone Bridge, spans a small stream within the garden. More than ten thousand bamboo plants surround the pavilion on three sides. The plaque ‘Bodhi Lan Ruo 菩提蘭若,’ written by Shiyan Gong 石巖公 from Gaochang, is displayed on the pavilion’s door, serving as a symbol of wisdom and spiritual practice. The garden also features two notable trees, a cypress called the ‘Jiaolong 蛟龍’ (Flood Dragon) and a plum tree referred to as the ‘Wolong 臥龍’ (Crouching Dragon), both of which lend their names to two pavilions: Zhibai Pavilion and Wenmei Pavilion. These names are inspired by Chan stories from Master Mazu 馬祖 and Master Zhaozhou 趙州, used to teach the monks who come to study the teachings of Chan. The garden includes two water features, Binghu Well 冰壺井 and Yujian Pond 玉鑑池, which metaphorically represent the Buddha-nature through the element of water. Behind Lion Peak is a small hut made of thatch, where Weize meditates. The hut’s doorframe bears a plaque inscribed with the words ‘Chan Wo.’ Inside Chan Wo are eight mirrors arranged in a circular formation, reflecting each other and symbolizing the interplay of Buddha-nature and human nature in Chan meditation. This arrangement encourages meditation practitioners to attain insight and awareness.

The above information reveals three key points.

Firstly, while Lion Grove is known as a Buddhist monastery, it also serves as Weize’s personal hermitage. Weize previously spent over a decade in seclusion in Songjiang. He explained his choice of Songjiang for his reclusion, noting, ‘Songjiang has transformed from its former state; its water resources have grown increasingly plentiful. Featuring ancient trees, bamboo, and rocks reminiscent of secluded mountain regions, this location possesses a charming and alluring quality.’ [15] The decision to retreat into seclusion typically stems from a desire to withdraw from the secular world and its intricate social dynamics. Hermits generally seek to avoid cities, which are hubs of intense human activity. Instead, they prefer natural settings such as remote mountains and untamed forests, which offer sparse populations and thus greater tranquility and solitude. Weize reflects on this in his poetry about Lion Grove, stating, ‘Although physically situated in the bustling city of Suzhou, being at Lion Grove envelops me in a sensation akin to dwelling amidst mountains and forests.’ [21] Therefore, from the perspective of spatial relocation, Weize, a former hermit, naturally favored a natural setting for his residence over an urban one. Weize agreed to relocate from Songjiang to Suzhou and to design the garden because the site offered a serene, natural environment, contrasting sharply with the urban hustle and bustle. As mentioned above, ‘The site, densely forested, remained cool and refreshing even in the height of summer, resembling the tranquility of a remote mountain forest despite its location amidst the bustling city’. This explains why Weize chose to settle in Suzhou and create Lion Grove. His past experience as a hermit deeply influenced his preference for the landscape of his residence. He saw Lion Grove as a sanctuary where he could continue to enjoy the calm of nature, and pursue meditation and spiritual practices, much as he had in his earlier hermitage in Songjiang.

Secondly, the primary focus of the entire garden and monastery lies not in its architectural elements, but rather in the natural landscape. As noted earlier, ‘there are not many buildings’, highlighting the emphasis on natural surroundings. Even the names of the garden’s architectural features are derived from nature. For example, Wenmei Pavilion is named after a plum tree located within the garden (Figure 3), and Zhibai Pavilion owes its name to a cypress tree (Figure 4). Similarly, Chan Wo is associated with straw (Figure 5), further underscoring the connection to natural elements. While these structures are indeed architectural, the cultural ambiance of the buildings is deeply intertwined with the natural landscape that envelops them. The buildings primarily function as spaces for residence and indoor activities, offering places for people to rest and enjoy the scenic views. Thus, the garden’s emphasis is on enjoying the natural beauty of the landscape through the windows and doors of these buildings. Consequently, the natural landscape acts as the principal conduit linking various cultural elements in Lion Grove, positioning architecture in a more functional rather than cultural role.

Thirdly, the entire garden is constructed around various peaks made of Taihu stones, with Lion Peak as the central feature. In the tradition of Chan monasteries, which originated in the Tang Dynasty, the design has historically centered on the Dharma Hall, rather than a hall dedicated to Buddha. This approach is detailed in the Chan Buddhist text The Rules of Baizhang 百丈清規 (Baizhang Qinggui), written by the Tang Dynasty Chan master Baizhang Huaihai 百丈懷海禪師. The Qinggui provides guidelines not only for the architectural design of Chan monasteries but also for the conduct of Chan monks. A pivotal guideline from this text states that ‘no Buddha hall should be built, only the Dharma hall should be established 不立佛殿,唯樹法堂.’ Following this traditional layout, Lion Grove has positioned the Dharma Hall as its main architectural feature [12]. Yet Lion Grove introduces a unique innovation by emphasizing the rock formations, particularly Lion Peak, as the monastery’s central element. During the Yuan Dynasty, there were three peaks, Lion Peak (獅子峰), Tuyue Peak (吐月峰), and Hanhui Peak (含暉峰), in front of Chan Wo in the garden, allowing Weize to appreciate them during meditation (Figure 6). The name ‘Lion Grove’ itself originates from Lion Peak, which resembles [20], making it the dominant feature of the monastery. This design choice reflects a desire to create a Chan garden that symbolizes the spirit of the Buddha through rocks, thus linking the spiritual practice of Chan with the serene beauty of nature.

The integration of an ‘ideal’ natural landscape into an urban environment was not unique to Lion Grove. For instance, the Saihō-ji Temple (Koke-dera) in Kyoto, Japan, also exemplifies a Chan Buddhist garden that harmonizes natural elements within a constrained urban setting. However, while Saihō-ji emphasizes moss-covered grounds and a circular walking path for meditation, Lion Grove during the Yuan Dynasty distinguished itself through its rock-dominated spiritual landscape centered around symbolic peaks like Lion Peak, rather than creating physical barriers. Another example is the Lingyin Temple in Hangzhou, which blends natural scenery with monastic architecture yet prioritizes expansive mountain vistas. In contrast, Yuan Dynasty Lion Grove’s innovation lies in its arrangement of rocks as focal points for meditation, synthesizing Chan Buddhist symbolism with hermit-inspired seclusion in a uniquely urban monastic context. This approach differed from both Japanese karesansui gardens’ abstraction and other Chinese temple gardens’ grand naturalism.

In summary, compared to the modern Lion Grove, the garden design of the Lion Grove in the Yuan Dynasty was more significantly influenced by Chan Buddhism, with a stronger emphasis on natural elements rather than architectural features. Weize, who once lived as a hermit and held a poetic reverence for nature, influenced the design of Lion Grove’s garden environment. His preference for natural settings over urban landscapes led to the natural elements in Lion Grove serving as carriers of cultural functions, with rock landscapes as the centerpiece of these natural settings, indicating that the planning theme of the garden originated from natural elements.

This hermit-inspired spatial organization fundamentally shaped the garden’s meditative function. The strategic placement of rockeries and water features created a sequence of secluded ‘stations’ for contemplation, mirroring the hermits’ progressive withdrawal into nature. Notably, the three peaks before Chan Wo formed a ritualized meditation circuit, their physical arrangement echoing the Daoist reclusive tradition of ‘walking meditation’ (行禅) in mountain landscapes [12]. This design synthesized monastic and hermit spatial practices, transforming the garden into a microcosm of wilderness retreat within urban confines.

5. The Designer of the Main Elements in the Garden

As previously mentioned, the name of Lion Grove is derived from its rocky landscapes, and during the Yuan Dynasty, Lion Grove was designed with a focus on rocky features such as Lion Peak. These rocky landscapes continue to be the most representative characteristics of Lion Grove to this day. Therefore, the rocky landscapes undeniably constitute the most significant landscape elements of Lion Grove.

The founders and designers of these rocky landscapes are documented in Shizilin Jisheng Ji. In 1642, Lion Grove experienced significant renovation. During this period, a scholar–bureaucrat named Li Mo 李模 (1586–1668) embarked on a thorough exploration and study to chronicle the extensive history of Lion Grove before its renovation. He compiled his extensive findings into an article, which was subsequently engraved on a stone tablet to preserve the garden’s history. The article, entitled Chi Ci Sheng En Gu Shilin Si Chong Jian Dian Ge Beiji 敕賜勝恩古師林寺重建殿閣碑記 [20], provides a detailed account of the garden’s historical background:

During the Yuan Dynasty, two individuals, Feng Haili and Ni Yunlin, played key roles in the development of Lion Grove. They were responsible for laying tiles in the buildings, designing and stacking the rock formations, as well as managing the ponds and maintaining the overgrown grass during the garden’s construction.

From this text, it is evident that Weize was not solely responsible for creating the rock formations in Lion Grove; during the Yuan Dynasty, Ni Yunlin and Feng Haili also participated in the construction of the rock formations. The duties such as ‘laying tiles in the buildings’ and ‘managing the ponds and maintaining the overgrown grass’ served specific construction objectives. In contrast, ‘designing and stacking the rock formations’ indicates that the peak landscape of Lion Grove was shaped by the subjective design visions of Ni Yunlin and Feng Haili. Feng Haili and Ni Yunlin visited Lion Grove because Weize admired their unique qualities, which led him to extend an invitation for them to meet there (Weize aimed to purify his soul and desired to cultivate friendships reminiscent of the plum blossoms near his home. To this end, he gathered disciples and sought the company of friends for recreational pursuits. Feng Haili, celebrated for his exceptional talent and elegant prose, was a distinguished figure in the literary world. Meanwhile, Ni Yunlin, known for his aloof and unsociable nature yet noble character, discovered peace and fulfillment in music and everyday life.) [22]. This demonstrates the multicultural backgrounds of the two individuals who designed the rock landscape. Emperor Qianlong 乾隆 (1711–1799) recognized Ni Yunlin as a distinguished hermit from the Yuan Dynasty in his poem Yu Zhi You Shizilin Jijing Zashi Sanshou 御製遊師子林即景雜詩三首 (Ni Yunlin, as a renowned hermit, left behind significant and meaningful relics 雲林大隱畱芳躅). This suggests that the identity and accompanying ideology of Ni Yunlin as a hermit may establish a conceptual link with the ideas he incorporated into his landscape design. Influenced by Daoism, Chinese garden design features a distinctive sense of seclusion [23]. In Chinese hermit gardens, unique rock formations and man-made mountains play a critical role [24]. Given that the rock arrangements in Lion Grove were crafted by a hermit, there are likely to be notable similarities between these and the design techniques found in traditional Chinese hermit gardens. By integrating the concept of hermitism with the arrangement of peculiar rocks and artificial mountains, one can deduce the landscape preferences of the garden’s designers and the philosophical messages they aimed to communicate. Therefore, it is reasonable to deduce that during the Yuan Dynasty, the rock formations represented by Lion Peak, besides serving as symbols of Buddhist spirituality when used by monks, were also shaped by the hermits’ understanding of reclusive garden design. The configuration and positioning of these rock formations reflect the hermits’ preferred esthetics in garden design. The hermits’ influence extended beyond esthetic preferences to shape the garden’s fundamental spatial logic. Their conception of reclusion was materially expressed through the rockeries’ labyrinthine arrangement—an intentional design that created physical seclusion while symbolizing the spiritual journey of withdrawal from worldly affairs. This spatial manifestation of hermit philosophy transformed Lion Grove into a liminal space where the urban monastery paradoxically embodied wilderness ideals, allowing practitioners to enact reclusion without leaving the city.

6. The Name of Garden Elements and the Literature

Traditional Chinese gardens, including Chan gardens, are deeply intertwined with poetry. Naming garden elements based on poetic content is a crucial design aspect representing the garden’s concept. Scholar–bureaucrats created numerous literary works for the sites in the Twelve Scenic Spots of Lion Grove, which reveal the origins of these names. From the comparison between Figure 1 and Figure 2, it can be observed that the names of four landscape architectures have been retained from the Yuan Dynasty to the present day. These are Lixue Hall (Figure 7), Zhibai Pavilion (Figure 4), Wenmei Pavilion (Figure 3), and Woyun Pavilion (Figure 8). Below is the name origins derived from poems or travelogs by scholar–bureaucrats, providing philosophical background into the overall concept and message of these four landscape architectures.

6.1. Lixue Hall (立雪堂: Hall of Standing in the Snow)

The Yuan Dynasty scholar–bureaucrat Zhou Ji (the birth and death dates are unknown) composed a poem for Lixue Hall [25]:

• 問法身忘倦，
• Questioning the Dharma body tirelessly,
• 堂前積雪深；
• snow piles up deep in front of the hall;
• 飛花知落去，
• The falling petals know their destination,
• 弟子已安心。
• while the disciple has already found peace.

This poem describes the Gongan story of Hui Ke 慧可 (487–593), the second patriarch of Chan Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty, who sought enlightenment from Bodhidharma. In the poem, the disciple refers to Hui Ke, and the hall represents Bodhidharma’s residence. Hui Ke knelt in front of Bodhidharma’s residence until the snow reached his knees, a perseverance that moved Bodhidharma and ultimately led to the transmission of doctrine to Hui Ke. The meaning of Lixue (立雪), ‘standing in the snow,’ originates from this Gongan. The Dharma Hall where Weize imparted doctrine was named Lixue Hall based on this Gongan in the poem. Perhaps Weize saw himself as Bodhidharma in the role of transmitting the Dharma and believed that disciples should possess the same unwavering spirit as Hui Ke to achieve enlightenment. The naming of Lixue Hall can also suggest that monks meditating in Lixue Hall recall this Gongan story as a way to facilitate enlightenment.

6.2. Zhibai Pavilion (指柏軒: Pavilion of Pointing at the Cypress Tree)

The poem of Zhibai Pavilion was composed by Yang Zhu, a scholar–bureaucrat in the Yuan Dynasty [26]:

• 去衲露玄机，
• Shedding the monk’s robe reveals profound mysteries,
• 非言亦非默；
• neither in words nor in silence;
• 西来意若何，
• What is the meaning of coming from the West?
• 笑指庭前柏。
• A smile points to the cypress in the garden.

This poem represents a Gongan story that tells a story about Zhaozhou Chan master (778–897) and a cypress tree [27]:

One day, a disciple of Zhaozhou asked him: ‘What is the Buddha Dharma that Bodhidharma brought from the West to the land in the East (China)?’ Zhaozhou pointed at a cypress tree in the garden and replied: ‘It’s this cypress tree.’ The disciple questioned again: ‘You shouldn’t answer me in this way. What exactly is the Buddha Dharma brought by Bodhidharma?’ Zhaozhou replied persistently: ‘It’s that cypress tree.’

The Gongan concluded without any resolution. Such paradoxical responses are intriguing, reflecting the Chan wisdom that defies direct expression and is difficult to articulate. The name ‘Zhibai (指柏)’ (Pointing at the Cypress Tree) symbolically refers to this Gongan. As depicted in Figure 2 and Figure 4, a cypress tree stands in front of the Zhibai Pavilion, symbolizing this Chan Gongan, which is associated with the cypress tree. The poem’s intention was to encourage those engaged in Chan meditation to contemplate the Gongan philosophy represented by the cypress tree.

6.3. Wenmei Pavilion (問梅閣: Pavilion of Consulting the Plum Tree)

Wei Su wrote in his travelog about Lion Grove [20]:

• 問梅之閣，蓋取媽祖……機緣，以示其來學。
• The name of Wenmei Pavilion originates from the Gongan story of Chan master Mazu, which is used to instruct those who come for Chan meditation.

In this part, Wei Su referred to a Gongan recorded in the diary of Chan master Mazu (709–788) in the Tang Dynasty [28]. This Gongan story is as follows:

When Fachang (Mazu’s disciple) first met Mazu, he asked, ‘What is enlightenment?’ Mazu replied, ‘The mind is enlightenment.’ After hearing this, Fachang became enlightened and later became the abbot of Dameishan Temple.

Later, Mazu sent one of his assistants to visit Fachang at Dameishan Temple and said to Fachang, ‘Mazu’s doctrine has changed, and enlightenment is now seen as neither the mind nor the Buddha.’

Fachang said, ‘Mazu, the old man, confuses people. Regardless of whether his doctrine changes or not, I still stick to my belief that the mind is enlightenment.’ The assistant went back and told Mazu about his conversation with Fachang, and Mazu said with satisfaction, ‘The plum is ripe.’

This story captures Mazu’s joy upon learning that Fachang remained true to his original aspirations despite external changes, expressed through the phrase ‘the plum is ripe.’ This suggests that the name ‘Wenmei (問梅)’ (consulting the plum tree) stems from the ripe plum featured in this Gongan story. Figure 2 and Figure 3 illustrate a plum tree in front of the Wenmei Pavilion, where a Chan monk meditates while observing the tree and the scenery outside Mazu’s Gongan story, which offers the monk a deeper inner interpretation of the landscape for his meditation practice.

6.4. Woyun Chamber (臥雲室: Chamber of Lying in the Clouds)

The Woyun Chamber symbolizes a sense of lying or resting among the clouds (Figure 8). Weize composed a poem for it [21]:

• 臥雲室冷睡魔醒，
• I awaken from the icy slumber in the Woyun Chamber,
• 殘漏聲聲促五更；
• The sound of raindrops hastening the arrival of dawn;
• 一夢又如過一世，
• A dream feels like a lifetime has passed,
• 東方日出是來生。
• The sunrise in the East heralding rebirth into Nirvana.

This poem shows the artistic conception of this poem on the Woyun Chamber as representing Weize’s leisurely and tranquil meditative state, which reflects his attitude of emptiness contemplation towards nature and the realm of silent meditation.

The name ‘Woyun Chamber’ comes from a poem with a profound hermitage background. The name ‘Woyun Chamber’ was not bestowed by Weize but rather by Jian Qigong, a scholar–bureaucrat [20]. Jian Qiong named this building with the meaning of the following poem [29]:

• 盤盤範家筆，老懷寄高蹇。
• The ink paintings by the Fan, reminiscent of winding mountain paths, embody the lofty aspirations of the elderly artist.
• 嵩丘動歸興，突兀青在眼。
• The scenery of Songshan Mountain evokes his yearning for reclusion, with the imposing green mountains seemingly within reach.
• 何時臥雲身，因節隧疏懶。
• When will I, like Fan, lie among the clouds, build a thatched hut, and lead a leisurely and carefree life?

Woyun Chamber originates from the term ‘臥雲 (Woyun)’ in the last line of the poem by Yuan Dynasty poet Yuan Haowen, symbolizing the notion of sleeping among the clouds. This poem addresses Fan Kuan (950–1032), a renowned painter and recluse from the Song Dynasty. Yuan expresses his admiration for Fan’s hermitic lifestyle, suggesting it embodies a sense of freedom akin to resting in the clouds. Thus, among the elements of Lion Grove, the Woyun Chamber most directly connects to hermitage culture.

In summary, the names of Lixue Hall, Zhibai Pavilion, and Wenmei Pavilion stem from Gongan stories associated with Chan meditation, indicating their specific purpose for meditative practice. Meanwhile, the Woyun Chamber’s name reflects the tastes and interests of scholars and bureaucrats, rooted in Chinese hermitage culture. As evident from these poems, the design and naming of the scenic spots in Lion Grove originate from a blend of Chan Buddhist concepts and the hermitage culture. Through these literary works, the cultural spirit that was intended to be expressed during the Yuan Dynasty has been carried on to this day.

The emergence of Lion Grove’s distinctive design can be attributed to three key historical factors during the Yuan Dynasty. First, the political suppression of Chan Buddhism after the 1288 court debate led monks like Weize to express doctrine through landscape symbolism, particularly in rock formations serving as meditation aids [12,30]. Second, the collaboration with hermits like Ni Yunlin reflected a cultural synthesis, where garden design became a medium for preserving spiritual ideals amid institutional decline [31,32]. Third, the urban location necessitated symbolic representations of wilderness, transforming physical constraints into contemplative advantages [5,33].

This configuration distinguishes Lion Grove from earlier monastic gardens by its rock-dominated layout and from later private gardens by its persistent Chan symbolism despite ownership changes [2,5]. The case demonstrates how religious gardens adapt to political pressures through spatial innovation, while maintaining core philosophical functions through literary preservation [12,31].

While this study highlights the Chan Buddhist and hermitic influences on Lion Grove’s design, alternative interpretations warrant consideration. Some scholars argue that the garden’s rock formations primarily reflect late Yuan Dynasty esthetic trends rather than religious symbolism [5,31]. However, the textual evidence from Shizilin Jisheng Ji—particularly Weize’s emphasis on rockeries as meditation aids—supports the centrality of Chan philosophy. Additionally, the hermitic influence evident in Ni Yunlin’s contributions does not negate the Chan framework but demonstrates how political suppression necessitated adaptive expressions of spirituality. The synthesis of these perspectives suggests that Lion Grove’s design was neither purely devotional nor purely esthetic, but a strategic negotiation of cultural preservation under institutional constraints. This aligns with recent scholarship on Yuan-era gardens as sites of ideological resistance [33], though further comparative studies with contemporaneous Chan monasteries could strengthen these claims.

7. Conclusions

The study demonstrates that Lion Grove’s Yuan Dynasty design was fundamentally guided by the interplay of Chan Buddhist spirituality and hermitic traditions, where natural landscapes—especially rockeries—functioned as primary mediums for philosophical expression, while architecture served a supportive role. This dual emphasis created a space where meditation, symbolism, and literary culture converged, distinguishing it from later private garden iterations.

This paper has questioned two widely held assumptions in the field of Chinese garden studies. The first is that rockeries in classical gardens were primarily ornamental, serving mostly esthetic functions. The second is that Chan Buddhist spatial practices were merely a continuation or adaptation of pre-existing Confucian and Daoist traditions. By focusing on the Yuan Dynasty Lion Grove, this study has illustrated how its intricate rock formations functioned as tools for meditative practice—an innovation that emerged, in part, in response to the political marginalization of Chan Buddhism during that period. This analysis brings to light a lesser-explored phase in the history of garden design, in which spiritual imperatives gave rise to novel spatial expressions. These insights not only call for a re-evaluation of other monastic sites from the Yuan era that may reflect similar adaptive strategies, but also challenge the conventional linear narrative that portrays the evolution of Chinese gardens as a straightforward shift from sacred to secular realms.

The original Lion Grove was undoubtedly a place for Chan meditation, as its creator Weize was a Chan monk. He used lots of scenery spots related to Chan stories within the garden and set up facilities for Chan meditation. It was designed to be a place to practice Chan meditation while surrounded by nature and viewing natural elements. This way of meditation is different from Indian Buddhism (Indian Buddhism seeks to minimize the influence of the natural environment), which is considered the way influenced by Confucianism and Daoism. Confucianism’s use of literature to metaphorically express the thoughts of scholar–bureaucrats through nature, and Taoism’s advocacy of the integration of humans and nature, have deeply influenced Chan Buddhism’s attitude towards nature. As a result, a strong bond between Lion Grove and nature was created.

From the perspective of the garden’s planning and intentions, as evident in the layout plan, the Lion Grove of the Yuan Dynasty featured a relatively larger proportion of natural environment compared to its current state. Notably, these natural elements were regarded as vehicles for conveying ideological content. Therefore, it can be confirmed that during the inception of Lion Grove, the garden design undoubtedly emphasized the cultural functions of the natural environment over the practical functions.

Weize and many scholar–bureaucrats designed the garden, named scenic spots, composed poems, and blended the ideas of Chan with natural elements like the cypress tree, the plum tree, clouds, or buildings in Lion Grove. These names and poems explain how Lion Grove was observed as a Chan garden, with the idea of hermitage. Many hermits came to Lion Grove to visit Weize and his garden, using the natural setting of the garden to express their emotions. The culture of hermitage in China is related to both Taoism and Confucianism, which is also absent in Indian Buddhism. Therefore, the philosophy of hermetism emerged as another cultural theme in Lion Grove during the Yuan Dynasty, alongside Chan Buddhism. This harmonious integration of Chan practice with the culture of hermitage within Lion Grove exemplifies the authentic Chan garden that originated in China.

With the changes in history, Lion Grove has been destroyed and reconstructed many times. The current buildings and garden elements are no longer in their original form, and the spatial composition of the garden is different from the original. From the mid-Qing Dynasty to the present day, it is a garden for the owner’s leisure activities, and no longer hosts Chan monks for meditation. However, there are still the same names from poetry with Chan Gongan on the newly constructed garden elements, and the new garden owner can still engage in Chan meditation by recalling these Chan Gongan and echoing them with corresponding scenic spots. In Lion Grove, the owner of the garden has changed over time and the shape of the garden and the elements have all been changed to different forms; however, the numerous literary works have ensured that the names and concepts of these elements have not been lost. As long as the concept remains, regardless of the materials, forms, or location of the garden elements changing, Chinese people still regard Lion Grove as a Chan garden.