Exploring Psychologists’ Interventions for Transgenerational Trauma in South Africa’s Born Free Generation
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- How do psychologists identify TGT in GBFG?
- What interventions are used by psychologists to address TGT in GBFG?
- How can psychologists’ interventions to address TGT in GBFG be enhanced?
2. Materials and Methods
3. Findings and Discussion
3.1. Identifying TGT in GBFG
3.1.1. Stuckness and Guilt
“The way in which it comes up is in the person feeling stuck so. I’ll give an example of that, so you’ll find that in most cases there is a Black female, who is quite accomplished and very well educated, but finds that they are quite stuck in their work life and it feels like there’s nothing that they can do to get themselves to a different position.”
“I think that sense of guilt when they talk about the past comes from being the first-generation person to be at university and the first-generation professional, for instance. So the forms of that, in terms of understanding where the person comes from, is being sort of and I guess feeling like you’re held back. So even if on the outside everything seems like it’s going OK, there’s that sense of psychologically and physically feeling like you’re being held back by something. And I think a lot of that is because of the processing of traumas that your parents and the people who have gone through before you, what they have not been able to do.”
“Generally with people who were from minority groups or Black people whose parents and grandparents experienced apartheid, what happens is they would obviously be the first people in most cases to seek psychotherapy. And you find that a lot of the times what they bring in and what they present is not just their experiences, but experiences that come from their parents. So some of them, I think most of them, it’s not even things that they’re conscious of. They’ll come in because of the depression and will come in because there’s a certain area where they feel like I said before, they’re stuck. What often comes up in that when you go into the history and look at some of the experiences with parents or grandparents is the fact that there was a lot of racial or social-political problems that they’ve been through.”
“The story of the memories themselves can become sort of hegemonic in a way. Like this is ‘this is our collective story’. The oral histories you know the retelling and retelling, it eventually becomes a dogma if you like. Maybe part of the work is the complexity of multiple stories. It’s not that everybody who is Black has the same story. And maybe your parents had a variation of that story and maybe you didn’t have it as bad and you feel guilty about this.”
“In some of the cases that I’ve worked with, there is a sense of shame for being successful. I’ve worked a lot with that with first-generation breadwinners. They’re doing exceptionally well in most areas of their lives but come to present with signs or even circumstances where they self-sabotage. In cases like that, you have to wonder if this person is trying to unconsciously protect themselves in terms of the intergenerational transmission of trauma. There’s a script, a sort of a psychological script that this person has written into the history that they need to pass on. Maybe a script that you can’t be too successful. You can’t outshine the people that have gone before you, because in a sense, is that betrayal of their suffering and what they’ve been through. So I think sometimes intergenerational trauma can present in that way.”
3.1.2. Grief and Silence
“These things are not spoken about, and the assumption is that by not talking about it you are protecting the children from having to deal with that. But the misconception is that just because you might not speak about something, it doesn’t mean that it doesn’t manifest in your life. Those are things that affect the children, affect your marriage. So in the end, while the intention of silence is good, it probably does more harm than anything else.”
“A lot of unspoken grief I feel with a lot of transgenerational intergenerational trauma. You’re dealing with trauma and PTSD and violence and helplessness and horror all those things. But often you’re also dealing with sort of complicated bereavement or disenfranchised grief, so the grief that you weren’t able to speak or talk about. It wasn’t recognized or validated and you just had to get on with it through development.”
“In subtle ways, elements of the trauma get expressed into the next generation through the deficits that came from the original trauma. So that the next generation would feel perhaps the certain sadness or absences of some things that hadn’t been explained to them or things that hadn’t been done to them. They would sort of be aware of some kind of heaviness which might then affect the way that they live their lives.”
3.1.3. Identity and Relationship Issues
“The other area that might come out for me would be around relationships. The idea of what the apartheid system did to the idea of the Black family. It was in a sense a destroyer, affecting people’s capacity or ability to have healthy, safe, familiar, positive, intimate relations and setups. So that can end up in situations where in single-parent households there’s a disdain or fear of men and masculinity. Men who have had their masculinity thwarted by apartheid enacting that in terms of their own partners and children.”
“The father was 13 years old in Kagiso. He had his own unit that he was commanding when he had been a soldier. He was basically a child soldier and that was the only thing he knew and then post 1994, he was absorbed into government. But he was strict with his son. In his story, the one thing his son said was that I wish my father can stop being my commander and be my father because he’s treating me like I’m someone that is a member of his unit.”
“Making it in life in terms of material things and having a stable life, but not that area of personal, intimate mirroring and acknowledgement and letting feelings be expressed because I think the parental generation didn’t have the luxury of being able to do that for the next generation. Often, they can experience their parents as loving them but not being able to hold them emotionally and that could then go into the next generation of struggling with having intimate relations because to be able to be intimate with another person you have to be able to be vulnerable and acknowledge your own feelings. If it hasn’t been done for you by your parents and you might find that you’re struggling in the relationship sphere.”
“They’re very, very aware of racial dynamics that are going on between children in their school’s bullying and name-calling. … You know communication breakdowns.”
“His grandmother said to him she hates White people, because of what they did to him and that she didn’t want him to be friends with any White people at school, which was very difficult because the school is about 40% Black and 60% White. So to only have Black friends would be possible, but not always straightforward. He was a bit confused because he realized that he was being caught up in a double bind. He needed to, in a sense, honor his grandmother, but at the same time, his friendships with White kids just felt ordinary and natural. It was unweighted by his own personal history at that point, but he was caught up with the idea of being loyal to her.”
“I think what it could set in motion was I suppose questioning himself as ‘Am I judging people accurately in terms of who should be my friend?’ So maybe self-doubting second-guessing himself. Perhaps it might have made him withdraw from White kids or think about them in ways that made those relationships more conflicted or problematic. You could see that sort of this could become a thing would affect how he negotiated friendship, which is, I think, what might be one of the things that are specific to the South African context in terms of our formations.”
3.1.4. Complexities in Identifying TGT
“It’s so complex that … often when people think about trauma, they think about something that is fixed within a space of time and an event that happened that resulted in a response; but I think with intergenerational trauma and how it’s transmitted, it’s something that’s constantly ongoing and I don’t know if there’s ever a point in time where you can sort of say that you’ve dealt with the trauma, and then you can move on. It’s not something you can use a model for. It’s something that you’re constantly uncovering because I think it’s all built into the person’s unconscious.”
“It’s quite hard to distinguish and or have a sort of treatment model or something that you can use for each individual. A lot of the interventions need to be quite individualized because of the very nuanced ways in which it plays out.”
3.2. Psychologists’ Interventions for TGT
3.2.1. Individual Psychological Interventions
“In my work, then you just look at how has that individual learnt from a young age to defend against the shortcomings, against those overwhelming strong feelings of not connecting to a self. It’s a spectrum, but the two extremes of the spectrum that we then see in response to that is, where on the one part you will see people sacrificing themselves, so they become co-dependent, so you see a lot of co-dependent behavior where it’s all about the other. Or you see the opposite, where people defend against their own insignificance through grandiosity or by becoming the center.”
“You might be dealing with something badly wrong in their attachment early on and it might have to do with, it usually has to do with intergenerational patterns. You often don’t hear about family trauma or attachment trauma until you’ve had a chance to see a person for quite a few sessions that sometimes never comes up in the first session or two.”
“Most of the kinds of interventions that are created for PTSD look at it as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. So basically, safety can be re-established in some way and then you can work with that because the trauma is in the past or it was one instance and it’s not ongoing. So threat and safety can be re-established, and the threat is gone. But for people who live either in situations or in the home where there’s this very complex relationship with the people who are perpetrating violence against you, and developmentally, these vulnerabilities around attachment and windows of development … then the symptoms look different, and the treatment actually needs to be different.”
“It’s very important to foreground the relationship that you have with your patient or client and also be relational, because depending on your demographics you’ll trigger something particular for patients. So whatever it is that they’ve unconsciously taken in and brought with them as a transmission of trauma, will be triggered by certain aspects of who you are as a therapist and what we call transference. The transference relationship with you is not just necessarily based on their own impulses or in their own thoughts, but it’s what you represent at a point in history where the trauma happened, and it needs to be spoken about, particularly in therapies when the therapist is White and the client is Black. So I think in those contexts, in the South African context, you cannot talk about that in therapy. It represents something even though it’s been like more than a decade from when that happened and when we moved from apartheid. I think most of the current issues around race and obviously definitely intergenerational, it’s finding translation within this person or this individual’s life and how it then plays out in some of their psychodynamic and intrapsychic processes, which is often intertwined and there’s an interplay between the intrapsychic and how a person feels and thinks about themselves internally, and also the external world and the social-political structures that are right now and that were in the past.”
“Creative arts nonverbal ways of working for me are very powerful with young people who experience these sorts of things and it’s not just because you’re working nonverbally and then putting things into language, you’re actually accessing different parts of the brain and body.”
3.2.2. Group Psychological Interventions
“A very important way of being able to work through intergenerational transmission of trauma is to have, in a sense, representation. So if it’s racial trauma, Black people can’t work through it by themselves, they need other races to be able to work through it and similarly White people I don’t think can work on it by themselves. So I think the notion of having a group and actually having a group of mixed people, mixed race, in this country where things can be dialogued quite differently and different positions held and different things triggered within people, is a really helpful way to work through some of the painful things that have happened in the past.”
3.2.3. Family Psychological Interventions
“With their permission, we would tell the father’s story to the son and the son’s story to the father. And these are people that live in the same house but realised they didn’t even know each other. …While the intention of silence is good, it probably does more harm than anything else. One thing that we found with these veterans that we’ve worked with is the therapeutic value they found in writing their stories and having them told not only to the general public but also to their families.”
3.2.4. Community Psychological Interventions
“It really showed me the type of intervention that we needed or that we will need for intergenerational trauma … in that we went in there believing that we were going to be using storytelling and narratives as a way of starting to unpack experiences of poverty, only for our participants to be 100% closed off from the process altogether because the stories that we were sharing were far too close to the bone … and in many ways the presentation that we had was also so far from what their personal lived experiences were and we were overshadowing and excluding a large part of their experience through bringing in our own narratives.”
“It was incredible to see the shift that happened when we then started to move our bodies and it started to just shift and change the energy because trauma’s so heavy. And then the next day we went into a process where myself and the macro facilitator stepped aside and said tell us your story and we got presented with the most heart-breaking narratives … we have to be the ones that just hold space, in such a way that we can listen to the narratives and start to support development by asking what do you need? What will that look like?”
3.3. Enhancing Psychologists’ Interventions for TGT in GBFG
3.3.1. Challenges in the South African Context
“One thing that comes to mind in terms of other types of symptoms is a deep sense of victimhood … the notion of generational victimhood and how we define victims and that is also linked to transgenerational trauma. We should look beyond primary victims, we are preoccupied with this legal conception of what a victim is and with the history that we have, we have the centuries of oppression and exploitation, and all of those things with transgenerational trauma there are other victims. And those are victims that should be acknowledged as well.”
“You can make an argument for White people also having been victims of apartheid when you look at it from an intergenerational transgenerational perspective. You have this discourse around White privilege and young White people you know, like yourself, that have never lived under apartheid but in a way also paying the price of what was essentially the sins of their forefathers.”
“These are people that were traumatised on a massive scale; you would assume that someone or even a group of people that have been subjected to that type of experience would be more sensitive and have more empathy towards other groups, and it’s the exact opposite.”
“I think in the healing work there has to be an understanding of that there are more complexities because even in working with the damage itself on an individual level, it is so important when I work with clients that they get to a place where they can move from the blame. I’m blaming my parents, I’m angry at them because I’m so wounded, but I have to make them the enemy to validate my own experience. Sometimes it takes a long time for someone to become aware enough of their internal space to become aware enough in tolerating the painful experiences without projecting them. I think on a transgenerational level in our country, and I can only reflect on our country, I think I see it in a lot of spaces the same thing playing out. That’s why I’m saying I think there’s a collective here. It’s not just an individual thing where nations or races or communities are so wounded, but because they can’t heal or they don’t have access or they don’t know how. So they can’t heal that wound, so the pain has to be projected. So we will project the pain onto the abuser or the oppressor but that does not heal. That just swings the process around. It doesn’t bring healing to anybody in a sense.”
“Often patients don’t even recognize that they’ve been a victim of some sort of violence. It just feels normal or that they’ve been a victim of some sort of coercion. And there’s a sadness attached to what’s that happened, but there’s not really like a realization that I’m a victim of this. It’s just normal. It happens to me and it happens to others in my family and it happens to my neighbor and if you go talk to the police about it, nothing is going to happen or they’re going to say it’s your fault … Am I a victim? Like what does that mean? Because what would change? Is there sort of a mental health problem but this is just how it’s always been? I can’t pinpoint one thing in my life that then led to a mental health issue.”
“We have got to, as psychologists in the country, be fighting on a far bigger level. We have the capacity and the ability to indicate how these systems are so detrimental to an individual and collective system, and its access, but advocacy at the same time.”
“In other places I’ve worked, there’s a social worker, there’s a psychiatrist. You work as a multidisciplinary team, and everybody is taking on bits and accessing systems that are there. I find that the work here is much harder on the clinicians if you’re working at community level because you have to be the case worker and the social worker or at least know enough about those systems to be able to help your client and also manage expectations of those services and the people who deliver.”
“I don’t believe that we can heal trauma on a national or a global level until individuals can heal. Otherwise, if this is a person’s experience of self is fragmented they will have a distorted engagement with their emotional experience. They will either project it, suppress it, or be grandiose about it. And those are the kind of patterns that repeat a national or global trauma.”
3.3.2. Personal and Professional Growth
“We had people from all nationalities, all ages, backgrounds, or socioeconomic statuses participate. It was four or six weekends over a year, running for two years. There were group experiences where people could share in an open forum, so the large groups, and we had small groups in which people shared more personal stuff. In a small group experience of about 12 people with two facilitators, people just shared some of the trauma that they experienced as an individual. But then we also had opportunities where there were large group experiences. Now a large group consisted of about give or take 50. People from all races and ages and genders and sexual orientations, facilitated by about 10 facilitators. It was just an open unstructured format to get people to try and share their experiences and get other people to witness it. Which is quite powerful, so it wasn’t a formalized study, but it was an experiential experience in the impact of intergenerational trauma in South Africa.”
“You’re being asked to hold onto ideas about race that are congruent with the narrative and experiences of the older generation which a younger person might, in a more postmodern sense, have felt less connected to.”
4. Conclusions
4.1. Limitations
4.2. Implications for Professional Practice
4.3. Policy Recommendations
4.4. Research Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
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HPCSA Practice Field | Year of HPCSA Registration | Gender | Race | Primary Professional Environment | |
Participant 1 | Educational Psychology | 1993 | Female | White | Private Practice |
Participant 2 | Clinical Psychology | 1993 | Male | White | Tertiary Institution |
Participant 3 | Clinical Psychology | 2012 | Female | White | Private Practice |
Participant 4 | Research Psychology | 2001 | Male | Colored | Research Council |
Participant 5 | Clinical Psychology | 2016 | Female | Black | Private Practice |
Participant 6 | Art Therapy | 2012 | Female | White | Tertiary Institution |
Participant 7 | Educational Psychology | 2021 | Female | White | Research |
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Crankshaw, A.T.; Dwarika, V.M. Exploring Psychologists’ Interventions for Transgenerational Trauma in South Africa’s Born Free Generation. Trauma Care 2023, 3, 212-236. https://doi.org/10.3390/traumacare3040020
Crankshaw AT, Dwarika VM. Exploring Psychologists’ Interventions for Transgenerational Trauma in South Africa’s Born Free Generation. Trauma Care. 2023; 3(4):212-236. https://doi.org/10.3390/traumacare3040020
Chicago/Turabian StyleCrankshaw, Amy Thandeka, and Veronica Melody Dwarika. 2023. "Exploring Psychologists’ Interventions for Transgenerational Trauma in South Africa’s Born Free Generation" Trauma Care 3, no. 4: 212-236. https://doi.org/10.3390/traumacare3040020