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Entry

Post-2024 UK International Student Supply Chain Challenges

by
Ziad Hunaiti
1,* and
Lubna Sultan Altamimi
2
1
Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences, Brunel University London, London UB8 3PH, UK
2
Lord Ashcroft International Business School, Faculty of Business and Law, Anglia Ruskin University, East Rd, Cambridge CB1 1PT, UK
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(3), 132; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5030132
Submission received: 29 May 2025 / Revised: 16 July 2025 / Accepted: 15 August 2025 / Published: 28 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Definition

The number of students studying outside their home countries has increased in recent years, and the United Kingdom has long been positioned as a leading destination, consistently being ranked among the top five English-speaking countries for international education. However, in 2024, the UK experienced a significant decline in international student enrolments, with Australia surpassing the UK to take second place globally. This decline coincided with an increasingly restrictive political climate, particularly reflected in changes to student visa policies and new limitations on dependents. The reduction in international student numbers poses serious financial risks to UK universities, many of which rely heavily on tuition from overseas students, and brings broader organizational challenges, including staffing cuts, programme restructuring, and reduced support services. Societally, it impacts local economies, reduces cultural diversity, and weakens the UK’s soft power and global educational influence. This entry explores the current state of the UK’s international student supply chain, examines emerging post-2024 challenges, and outlines key implications to inform institutional and policy-level responses.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

1.1. History of International Students

The concept of ‘studying abroad’ can be dated back to the beginnings of human history [1], and in terms of specialized higher education institutions (HEIs), it can be traced to North Africa and Iberia [2,3], which led to the first Western universities in Europe [4,5,6,7,8]. However, non-elite individuals could not access such opportunities prior to the social changes and human resource needs of the Industrial Revolution (1750–1900), from which advancements in transportation allowed more international students (hereinafter ‘int-students’) from overseas to travel for higher education [9,10], given the need to train colonial elites to administer to emerging European empires [11].
The contemporary concept of ‘ordinary’ int-students studying abroad to achieve their own educational and socio-economic goals only began to emerge in the mid-20th century, due to the administrative and technical skills required for emerging nation states, commensurate with the universal expansion of universities and university places worldwide from 1950 onwards [12,13]. Such trends were reflected by the rapid growth of global higher educational enrolment during this period.
The late 20th century marked the maturation of the int-student supply chain [14], consisting of three key elements: sending countries, which are nations where students seek to study abroad; receiving countries, which are the destinations to which these students travel for education; and int-students, who are individuals pursuing academic opportunities abroad, serving as the central link between sending and receiving countries in global education mobility (Figure 1).

1.2. The UK Context

From the beginning of this trend, the most popular study destinations included the USA, the UK, Australia, Canada, France, Germany, New Zealand, and Spain [14]. By the end of the 20th century, other study destinations began making a serious impression, particularly as universities in non-Anglophone countries (particularly in Europe) began offering courses in English, further shaping the global landscape of international education, and making ‘studying abroad’ a global industry as well as an international educational phenomenon [15]. Competition increased between different receiving countries around the globe as well as between universities within the same country, corresponding with an increasing orientation toward corporate business models in the administration of universities from the late 20th century onwards, and with macroeconomic trends reflected in the neoliberalist political economy [16].
The UK has been among the leading countries for international education, consistently attracting thousands of int-students every year since time immemorial, and students from across the globe make significant economic, cultural, and academic contributions to the country [17]. Specifically, the contribution of int-students to the UK economy grew from GBP 31.3 billion in 2018/19 to GBP 41.9 billion in 2021/22 [18]. Therefore, any decline in the int-student supply chain will have a direct impact on UK institutions and the UK as a whole, particularly in ‘university towns’ whose local economies and native employment largely depend on universities (the net contribution of int-students equates to a mean sum of GBP 58 million per UK parliamentary constituency per annum, but naturally this contribution is greater in university towns where int-students reside and study).
However, recent figures indicate a drop in the number of int-students coming to study in the UK, which is emerging as a major challenge for UK institutions. This decline has already led to staff reductions. To take one example from news reports concerning various universities’ precarious financial situation, in January 2025, Cardiff University announced that it planned to cut around 400 staff positions in order to ‘secure’ its future [19].

1.3. Research Context

Based on the recent drop in UK int-student applications, this entry reviews related sources to help various stakeholders in the UK higher education system (e.g., university admissions departments and government policymakers) to gain a better understanding of the international student supply chain and the post-2024 challenges facing the UK higher education market.
This entry adopts a narrative review approach [20], which is particularly suited to exploring complex and evolving issues such as int-student mobility and the recent decline in enrolment within the UK higher education sector. This narrative review method enables a flexible and interpretive synthesis of the literature, allowing the author to draw from diverse sources and perspectives to critically analyze trends, identify emerging patterns, and explore the underlying causes of the 2024 decline in int-student numbers.
This study was guided by the overarching research question: What is the current status of the int-student supply chain, with a focus on the UK market, and what potential challenges does this pose for the UK’s international education sector?
To address this question, this study synthesized data from the academic literature, government reports, think tank publications, higher education policy documents, and relevant grey literature published between 2005 and early 2025. The most recent and relevant publications (from 2023 to 2025) were prioritized to ensure that findings reflect up-to-date trends and developments.

2. Data

2.1. Insights on Recent Int-Student Supply Chain Trends

The int-student supply chain plays a vital role in shaping global higher education and reflects both economic and geopolitical shifts worldwide. Over the past two decades, the number of students pursuing education abroad has risen dramatically, driven by increased globalization, expanding academic opportunities, and growing demand for international credentials [12]. To better understand how int-student mobility is evolving and its implications for the UK higher education sector, this section explores three key dimensions of the int-student supply chain that are crucial for assessing the UK’s current position and future prospects.
First, it highlights the top receiving countries of int-students, identifying global trends and the competitive landscape among host nations. Second, it examines the top sending countries to the UK, revealing the main sources of international enrolment and how shifts in these markets impact UK universities. Finally, it discusses recent trends in int-student numbers within the UK, analyzing patterns before and after 2024 and evaluating the effects of policy decisions and external challenges.

2.2. Top Receiving Countries of Int-Students

The number of int-students pursuing studies abroad has been steadily increasing each year for decades, and 2022 witnessed a significant surge in int-student mobility, reflecting a rebound effect from COVID-19 lockdowns. According to recent UNESCO data, the global number of int-students increased by 170.6% from 2002 to 2022, rising from 2.5 million to 6.9 million [21]. This marks a historic shift in the international education supply chain industry, reflecting the growing demand for cross-border education and the increasing accessibility of global academic opportunities.
According to the Statista website on the top host destinations for int-students in 2022, as shown in Figure 2, millions of int-students pursued their studies across 22 different countries [22]. As shown in the extracted data of the top 20 destinations, the US attracted the largest share, with over one million int-students, followed by the UK (700,000), Canada (600,000), France (392,000), Australia (361,000), and Germany (349,000). Other countries also played significant roles in hosting int-students. In second place, the UK is a high-performer in attracting int-students relative to its size [23]; indeed, it has fewer than 150 universities while the USA has nearly 4000 [24]. Consequently, the UK has long been noted for its disproportionate success in attracting a high number of int-students in comparison to the USA [25], although Canada does even better in this regard (i.e., relatively).
It is evident that the dynamics of int-student destinations are changing [26]. This shift is demonstrated by the repositioning of some traditionally top-receiving countries, such as France and Australia, with Germany closely trailing behind [22]. Additionally, new countries are entering the competition by attracting a share of the int-student market [27]. This growing competition strengthens the global higher education landscape while providing int-students with a wider range of options to choose from, which has an influence on stakeholders’ decision-making processes [28].

2.3. Top Sending Countries to the UK

The top five countries consistently sending the highest number of int-students to the UK are India, Nigeria, Pakistan, China, and Bangladesh [29]. While the rankings among the top 10 countries tend to fluctuate from year to year, they are expected to remain the primary contributors to the UK’s int-student population. Figure 3 shows the top 10 sending countries to the UK for the year 2024 according to the British Council website [30].
It should be noted that other countries may enter the top ten in certain years, but they can also disappear intermittently due to changes in government policies or initiatives. For instance, during the 2000s, Saudi Arabia was a major sender under the ‘King Abdullah Scholarship Program’ [31], but this then sharply tailed off due to Saudi budget cuts [32]. Similarly, Brazil’s ‘Science Without Borders’ programme significantly increased the number of students studying abroad on scholarships during the 2010s [33], until this was abruptly stopped due to changing political and economic circumstances in Brazil [34,35].
Although UK universities have maintained supply chain stability from their traditionally strong sending countries, particularly China, India, Pakistan, and Nigeria [36], relying heavily on a few nations presents significant risks due to economic and political vagaries that can arise without warning, as alluded to above. More recently, this vulnerability was demonstrated in the case of Nigeria’s 2023 currency exchange crisis, which led to a dramatic decline in the number of Nigerian students due to financial constraints (and de facto failures to meet the financial requirements of the UK visa system in some cases) [37]. The rapid and substantial impact of this crisis on overall int-student numbers highlights the vulnerability of UK universities due to over-reliance on a few key markets [38].
To safeguard against such unexpected declines, diversifying recruitment efforts by expanding the list of sending countries [39], even with smaller student numbers, could help mitigate risks and ensure a more stable and resilient international education sector in the UK [27].

2.4. Trends in Int-Student Numbers in the UK

As reported by the UK Government’s ‘Research Briefing on International Students in UK Higher Education’, the UK remains one of the top global destinations for int-students [29]. As shown in Figure 4, the country demonstrated a rapid recovery in int-student enrolment and even experienced growth following COVID-19, largely driven by an increase in students from India, Nigeria, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and attained far higher numbers than in 2019, which is difficult to attribute solely to the COVID-19 rebound effect. However, during the same period, the number of students from China continued to decline until 2023. This downward trend in int-student enrolment became more pronounced following the UK government’s decision to limit dependent visas to postgraduate research students (and not those studying taught programmes), affecting the ability of many prospective students to bring their families over while studying.
Figure 5 compares the number of int-students between 2023 and 2024, showing that the majority of top sending countries experienced a decline in student numbers, with the exception of Pakistan [40]. This decline not only reflects circumstances specific to individual sending countries, such as Nigeria’s economic challenges [37], but may also indicate the influencing factors that either encourage or discourage int-students from choosing the UK as their study destination. This can be directly linked to the fact that Australia, which was fifth place behind the UK’s position in second place in 2022 (Figure 3), surpassed the UK in 2024 to take second place among the top destinations for int-students (after the US), while the UK dropped to third place [41]. This significant and rapid shift necessitates a thorough investigation to understand its root causes and implications for the UK’s position in the global education market.

3. Potential Challenges for the UK Int-Student Market

Although the UK robustly offers many of the identified pull factors that attract int-students, several challenges may have contributed to the decline in int-student numbers in 2024, with further impacts expected in the future. The following are some of the most significant challenges.

3.1. Competition from Other Major Destinations

The UK competes with countries like the US, Canada, and Australia, which offer similar policies and benefits to int-students [16,28,42]. While US policies have become increasingly hostile to int-students (and immigrants of all kinds) in recent years, Canada and Australia are perceived as more welcoming to int-students, while the UK has adopted punitive policies against them (particularly the restriction of family and dependent visas), as discussed below, which could lead students to chose alternative destinations [41].

3.2. Competition from Emerging International Study Destinations

Countries like France and Germany have begun offering more programmes in English to attract int-students [14,27]. Additionally, newer study destinations with lower tuition fees and living costs are becoming increasingly appealing to students seeking affordable options [43].

3.3. Political Direction and Immigration Policy in the UK

The longstanding anti-immigrant political consensus in the UK has been the foundation for increasingly hostile policies towards immigrants, reflected most recently in the deliberate decision to restrict visas for int-students’ dependents, and their scope to work in the UK after graduation. Such anti-immigration policies axiomatically seek to deter int-students from choosing the UK for their higher education. Furthermore, instances of civil unrest, political uncertainty, and stricter immigration policies may cause concerns among prospective students and their families [29,44,45].
The UK’s decision to include int-students in net migration statistics, and the political commitments of successive regimes to reduce the net migration figure, fundamentally affect int-students. Policy decisions affecting immigration may directly impact student numbers, as seen in 2024 [46,47]. If int-students continue to be counted within net migration figures, and governments continue seeking to actively reduce their numbers, naturally this will constitute an intrinsic barrier to future growth in int-student enrolments [18,47]. A clear example of this is the government policy of restricting dependent visas for int-students and the right to seek work upon graduating [37,41], which universities themselves cited as a major cause for the decline in int-students [19].

3.4. Rising Costs

UK tuition fees are relatively high compared to other destinations, and the increasing cost of living presents a major challenge for UK universities in competition with other countries [42,48,49]. Students seeking affordability may opt for study destinations with lower expenses [50].

3.5. Growth of Online and Distance Education

Since the COVID-19 pandemic, online degrees from UK universities and other institutions have become more accessible and affordable. This shift may encourage some students to choose online education instead of travelling abroad for on-campus learning [51].

3.6. Offshore Campuses

The rise in offshore campuses, whether affiliated with UK universities or international institutions, offers students the opportunity to study closer to home while still earning a degree from a prestigious institution. This trend may reduce the number of students opting for on-campus study in the UK [52,53]

3.7. Geopolitical Conflicts

The consequences of Brexit and the ongoing geopolitical conflicts in Europe and other regions have led governments to increase defence spending, potentially affecting funding for higher education and research facilities [54,55]. Additionally, the UK’s stance on certain conflicts may influence student perceptions and deter applicants from specific nationalities; for example, the UK’s militant foreign policy opposition to Russia, China, and Iran has spillover effects on relations with those countries and their allies [56].

3.8. Diversity Issues

Recent trends show that the overwhelming majority of int-students in the UK come from just three or four countries (i.e., China, India, Pakistan, and Nigeria), leading to concerns about a lack of diversity [18,30]. Some students seeking a truly global learning experience may prefer universities with a more cosmopolitan and multicultural int-student body [57]. Additionally, many UK universities have not sufficiently invested in expanding recruitment beyond key markets, which could affect future student enrolment trends [58].

3.9. Economic Crisis and Financial Constraints

As the world faces successive economic downturns, fewer students may be able to afford studying abroad [39]. This challenge is particularly significant if major student-sending countries to the UK, such as Nigeria, experience currency depreciation or economic instability [37]. A weakened economy in source countries can significantly reduce the number of students able to finance international education [59].

4. Conclusions and Prospects

Although the UK continues to offer many of the well-established pull factors that attract int-students, several challenges appear to have contributed to the decline in enrolments in 2024, with further impacts on student numbers expected in the coming years. The UK shares many of its attractive qualities with other English-speaking countries, making it easier for students to shift destinations when UK policies become less favourable. Given these similarities, Australia has emerged as a key beneficiary of this shift. Despite also retaining an essentially hostile environment towards immigration in general, Australia has been careful to position itself as an attractive destination for skilled economic migrants and international students, while the UK remains politically committed to driving down net migration, including reducing the number of international students through various tactics.
In addition, the push factors that motivate students to study abroad are also evolving. The rise in new international study destinations has intensified global competition, presenting further challenges for the UK and its traditional peers. These developments underscore the growing complexity of attracting and retaining int-students in an increasingly competitive global higher education landscape.
To remain a leading destination, UK higher education stakeholders, including the government and universities themselves, must proactively address concerns related to affordability, political messaging, and market diversification. It must also adapt to changing mobility trends, alternative education models, and the rise in new regional education hubs.
As the decline in int-student numbers is a relatively recent phenomenon, current research has yet to fully explore its underlying causes. Further research is needed to systematically map these contributing factors, filling a key gap in the literature. Such work would offer valuable insights for policymakers and institutional stakeholders, helping to inform strategic responses to the decline in int-student numbers—an issue with far-reaching macroeconomic and cultural implications for the UK.
The drop in int-student enrolments also poses significant organizational and societal consequences. Universities face financial pressure due to reduced tuition income, affecting staffing, research funding, and student services. Many institutions may be forced to restructure or cut programmes, especially in towns where universities are central to the local economy. Societally, the decline reduces cultural diversity on campuses and weakens the UK’s global education brand. Local economies reliant on student spending suffer, particularly in sectors such as housing, retail, and hospitality. Moreover, restrictive visa policies and anti-immigration rhetoric risk reinforcing exclusionary narratives, deterring future applicants, and eroding the UK’s soft power. A decline in the number of international graduates entering the workforce may also impact vital sectors such as healthcare, technology, and academia. Addressing these challenges will require coordinated efforts to restore international confidence, diversify recruitment strategies, and reassert the UK’s position as a welcoming and globally engaged education destination.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, Z.H.; investigation, Z.H. and L.S.A.; writing—original draft preparation, Z.H. and L.S.A.; writing—review and editing, Z.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
HEIHigher Educational Institute
Int-studentInternational Student

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Figure 1. Key elements of international student supply chain.
Figure 1. Key elements of international student supply chain.
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Figure 2. Top 20 host destinations for int-students. Data from [22].
Figure 2. Top 20 host destinations for int-students. Data from [22].
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Figure 3. The top 10 sending countries of int-students to the UK, 2024. Data from [30].
Figure 3. The top 10 sending countries of int-students to the UK, 2024. Data from [30].
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Figure 4. Int-students in UK higher education, 2009 to 2023. Adapted from [29].
Figure 4. Int-students in UK higher education, 2009 to 2023. Adapted from [29].
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Figure 5. Number of int-students in the UK during 2023 and 2024. Data from [40].
Figure 5. Number of int-students in the UK during 2023 and 2024. Data from [40].
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Hunaiti, Z.; Sultan Altamimi, L. Post-2024 UK International Student Supply Chain Challenges. Encyclopedia 2025, 5, 132. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5030132

AMA Style

Hunaiti Z, Sultan Altamimi L. Post-2024 UK International Student Supply Chain Challenges. Encyclopedia. 2025; 5(3):132. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5030132

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hunaiti, Ziad, and Lubna Sultan Altamimi. 2025. "Post-2024 UK International Student Supply Chain Challenges" Encyclopedia 5, no. 3: 132. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5030132

APA Style

Hunaiti, Z., & Sultan Altamimi, L. (2025). Post-2024 UK International Student Supply Chain Challenges. Encyclopedia, 5(3), 132. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5030132

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