The Second Quantum Revolution: Unexplored Facts and Latest News
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Planck’s Quantum Theory (1900) [2]: the starting point of QM was Planck’s proposal that the energy of harmonic oscillators, such as those emitting electromagnetic radiation, cannot take any value save for discrete values called quanta.
- Bohr’s Atomic Model (1913) [3]: Bohr extended these concepts to atomic structure, proposing a model where electrons have quantized angular momentum and travel on quantized orbits.
- Schrödinger’s Wave Equation (1925) [4]: Schrödinger developed the wave equation, a fundamental equation describing the time-dependent evolution of a quantum state.
- Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle (1927) [5]: Heisenberg formulated the Uncertainty Principle, stating that it is impossible to simultaneously know with precision both the position and linear momentum of a particle.
- Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen Paradox (EPR) (1935) [6]: the EPR Paradox is based on quantum entanglement, a state where the properties of two particles are closely correlated even at large distances, thereby highlighting implications on the nature of reality.
- Bell inequality (1964) [7]: Bell formulated an inequality to establish limits on the correlations that can exist between measurements of entangled particles.
2. Entanglement: From Philosophy to the Basic Concept of Physics
“[…] that one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of any thing else by & through which their action or force may be conveyed from one to another is to me so great an absurdity that I believe no man who has in philosophical matters any competent faculty of thinking can ever fall into it.”Isaac Newton [11]
2.1. Einstein’s Attacks
- Postulate I
- Postulate II
- Postulate III
- Postulate IV
“In a complete theory there is an element corresponding to each element of reality. A sufficient condition for the reality of a physical quantity is the possibility of predicting it with certainty, without disturbing the system. In QM in the case of two physical quantities described by non-commuting operators, the knowledge of one precludes the knowledge of the other. Then either (1) the description of reality given by the wave function in QM is not complete or (2) these two quantities cannot have simultaneous reality. Consideration of the problem of making predictions concerning a system on the basis of measurements made on another system that had previously interacted with it leads to the result that if (1) is false then (2) is also false. One is thus led to conclude that the description of reality as given by a wave function is not complete.”
- Reality:If, without in any way disturbing a system, we can predict with certainty (i.e., with probability equal to unity) the value of a physical quantity, then there exists an element of physical reality corresponding to this physical quantity.”
- Completeness:“[...] every element of the physical reality must have counterpart in the physical theory.”
- Locality:“On the other hand, since at the time of measurement the two systems no longer interact, no real change can take place in the second system in consequence of anything that may be done to the first system.”
“While we have thus shown that the wave function does not provide a complete description of the physical reality, we left open the question of whether or not such a description exists. We believe, however, that such a theory is possible.”
2.2. To Bohr or Not to Bohr
“One could object to this conclusion on the grounds that our criterion of reality is not sufficiently restrictive. Indeed, one would not arrive at our conclusion if one insisted that two or more physical quantities can be regarded as simultaneous elements of reality only when they can be simultaneously measured or predicted. On this point of view, since either one or the other, but not both simultaneously, of the quantities P and Q can be predicted, they are not simultaneously real. This makes the reality of P and Q depend upon the process of measurement carried out on the first system, which does, not disturb the second system in any way. No reasonable definition of reality could be expected to permit this.”
2.3. The Bell Sentence
2.4. Back to Duality
3. Entanglement and Modern Physics Teaching
3.1. The EPR Paradox
3.2. Transitioning between Classical and Quantum Paradigms: From Classical Correlations to Entangled States
3.2.1. Introduction: Ideas to Introduce a New Paradigm
- If you know the state of a quantum system, you do not know everything there is to know about the system. In particular, it is not guaranteed that you can predict the outcome of an experiment. The state space of a quantum system is not a countable set, and, in a quantum system, states are not distinguishable from each other in a completely unambiguous way.
- Moreover, in a quantum system, it is not possible to perform an experiment (a measurement) that leaves the system undisturbed, regardless of how gentle the measurement itself might be. In essence, a quantum system, whether it is an electron, a photon, or a collection of atoms, does not have a well-defined state; more precisely, it exists in a condition of a superposition of states (in this regard, the “Schrödinger’s Cat Paradox” illustrates this concept well), which are all equally realizable in terms of stochastic probability. It is only through the measurement of a specific physical quantity associated with the system that it collapses into one of the possible states.
- These effects can be observed in quantum systems that are composed of a single particle, but they are not the only distinctions we can observe between systems composed of classical objects and quantum objects. There are additional differences that manifest in composite quantum systems that include at least two subsystems, each of a quantum nature. The correlations between these subsystems give rise to another distinction between classical and quantum systems as, while correlations in classical systems can always be described in terms of classical probabilities, this is not always possible in quantum composed systems. Such non-classical correlations lead to apparent paradoxes, like the famous EPR Paradox, which might suggest, at first glance, the existence of a remote and non-local action in QM. States that exhibit such non-classical correlations are referred to as entangled states.
3.2.2. Pure States
3.2.3. Bipartite Quantum Systems
3.2.4. Entangled System
- Let us associate an amount of information, which is denoted as and , with the physical state of the two subsystems. The so-defined composite operation “•” will provide us with the measurement result for Subsystem 1 and the value for Subsystem 2 in the following manner:
- We observe that the measurement on the first subsystem will be a function of the information contained in the second , and vice versa.
- Preparation: The entangled system is prepared in a particular state, such as .
- Measurement Setup: Separate measurements are performed on each subsystem, which is indicated by the operators ⊗, +, and “•” in the context of QM.
- Quantum Interaction: The measurement on one subsystem influences the other, thereby causing a change in their states due to entanglement.
- Outcome: After the measurements, the specific values, and , are obtained for each subsystem.
- Correlations: The outcomes for each subsystem are correlated in such a way that they cannot be described independently; their behavior is intertwined.
- Entanglement Effect: The measurements on one subsystem provide information about the other, thereby defying classical concepts of independent measurements.
3.2.5. Summary
- (a)
- Instantaneous Correlations: Even when entangled particles are separated by large distances, any measurement made on one particle will instantaneously influence the state of the other, regardless of the distance. This phenomenon appears to violate the concept of causality in classical physics.
- (b)
- Quantum Communication: Quantum entanglement can be harnessed for quantum communication, such as in the field of quantum cryptography. Changes to one entangled particle can be detected instantaneously by the other, thus allowing for the transmission of secure information.
- (c)
- Quantum Computing: Entanglement offers significant advantages in the field of quantum computing. Entangled qubits, which are qubits that are part of an entangled quantum system, can exist in combined states and perform complex operations in parallel, thereby potentially speeding up the solution of problems that are otherwise impossible for classical computers.
- (d)
- Representation of Quantum Reality: Entanglement demonstrates that the laws of QM can lead to results that seem counterintuitive or contrary to our everyday experience. This underscores the need to embrace a new conceptual paradigm when describing the world at the quantum level.
- (e)
- Quantum Thermal Engines: Theoretical concepts of quantum engines, though not yet practically implemented, leverage entanglement to explore innovative ways of enhancing efficiency in converting heat to work, thus challenging traditional conceptions of physical reality and paving the way for potential applications in the fields of thermodynamics and engineering [43].
3.3. Transitioning between Classical and Quantum Paradigms: Bell’s Inequality with Scratchcards
- If one scratches the corresponding square (i.e., with the same identifying letter, A, B, or C) on both halves, then the color revealed beneath is always the same. It is white 50% of the times and black the remaining 50% of the times.
- If one scratches different squares (i.e., squares identified by different letters) on two halves from the same ticket, one finds the same color only 25% of the time (with an equal probability for each color appearing) and different colors 75% of the time (with an equal probability of finding black on the half labeled 1 and white on the half labeled 2, and vice versa).
3.4. Summary
4. New Avenues for Quantum Technologies: Quantum Molecular Materials
4.1. Molecular Chemistry in Quantum Technology
4.1.1. Coherence Time
4.1.2. Initialization
4.1.3. Quantum Gates
4.1.4. Addressability
4.1.5. Scalability
4.2. Molecular Spins in Hybrid Quantum Architectures
Magnetic Material–Superconductor Coupling
4.3. TbPc2 as the Local Sensor of the Superconductive Phase
4.4. Summary
5. Harnessing Quantum Complexity and Implications for Potential Industrial Applications
- Grid Optimization: Quantum algorithms can be employed to optimize the operation and control of power grids, thus ensuring efficient energy distribution and minimizing transmission losses [108].
- Renewable Energy Integration: Quantum computing can assist in optimizing the integration of renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, into existing energy grids. This involves addressing the variability and intermittency of renewable sources [109].
- Resource Allocation: Quantum algorithms can optimize the allocation of energy resources, including the scheduling of power generation from various sources to meet demand while considering factors like cost and environmental impact [110].
- Energy Storage Management: Quantum computing may enhance the optimization of energy storage systems by helping the determination of the optimal locations and capacities for energy storage facilities, as well as by delivering the most efficient use of stored energy [111].
- Smart Grids and Demand Response: Quantum algorithms can contribute to the development of smarter energy grids, enabling better demand–response mechanisms and the efficient utilization of energy resources based on real-time demand fluctuations [112].
- Carbon Emission Reduction: Quantum optimization can be applied to minimize carbon emissions by optimizing the energy mix, thus reducing reliance on fossil fuels and identifying cleaner energy alternatives [109].
- Supply Chain Optimization: Quantum computing can optimize the supply chain for energy-related components, thereby leading to improved efficiency in manufacturing, transportation, and maintenance processes [113].
- Exploration of New Materials: Quantum computers can aid in the exploration of new materials for energy storage and conversion, thus potentially accelerating the development of advanced energy technologies [114].
5.1. Quantum Technologies and Law Enforcement
5.2. Summary
6. Conclusions and Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
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Intonti, K.; Viscardi, L.; Lamberti, V.; Matteucci, A.; Micciola, B.; Modestino, M.; Noce, C. The Second Quantum Revolution: Unexplored Facts and Latest News. Encyclopedia 2024, 4, 630-671. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4020040
Intonti K, Viscardi L, Lamberti V, Matteucci A, Micciola B, Modestino M, Noce C. The Second Quantum Revolution: Unexplored Facts and Latest News. Encyclopedia. 2024; 4(2):630-671. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4020040
Chicago/Turabian StyleIntonti, Kimberly, Loredana Viscardi, Veruska Lamberti, Amedeo Matteucci, Bruno Micciola, Michele Modestino, and Canio Noce. 2024. "The Second Quantum Revolution: Unexplored Facts and Latest News" Encyclopedia 4, no. 2: 630-671. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4020040
APA StyleIntonti, K., Viscardi, L., Lamberti, V., Matteucci, A., Micciola, B., Modestino, M., & Noce, C. (2024). The Second Quantum Revolution: Unexplored Facts and Latest News. Encyclopedia, 4(2), 630-671. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4020040