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Article

The Mediating Role of Mindfulness in Attentional, Emotional, and Behavioral Self-Regulation During Late Childhood and Early Adolescence

by
Bárbara Porter
1,*,
Cristian Oyanadel
2,
Ignacio Betancourt-Peters
2 and
Wenceslao Peñate
3
1
School of Midwifery and Obstetrics, Faculty of Health Care, Universidad San Sebastián, Concepción 4030000, Chile
2
Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción 4030000, Chile
3
Clinical Psychology, Psychobiology and Methodology School, Psychology Faculty, Guajara Campus, La Laguna University, 38200 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Adolescents 2025, 5(4), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5040072
Submission received: 29 August 2025 / Revised: 7 November 2025 / Accepted: 12 November 2025 / Published: 14 November 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Adolescent Health and Mental Health)
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Abstract

(1) Background: Self-regulation of attention, emotions, and behavior constitutes a core set of skills essential for positive mental health in adolescence and adulthood. Mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) have shown positive effects on these skills in early developmental stages. Yet it remains unclear whether dispositional mindfulness mediates these effects. This study examined whether dispositional mindfulness mediates the effects of attention and emotion-focused MBIs on attentional, emotional, and behavioral self-regulation. (2) Method: An experimental study was conducted with three conditions: (a) MBI focused on emotion regulation, (b) MBI focused on attentional regulation, and (c) control group. The sample consisted of boys and girls aged 8 to 12 years (n = 70, Mage = 9.60, SD = 1.01), randomly assigned to the three experimental conditions. Group differences in emotional, behavioral, and attentional regulation were analyzed, with mindfulness as a mediating variable. The mediation analysis was conducted using linear regressions and a nonparametric bootstrap technique with 5000 samples. Age and gender were included as control variables in all models. (3) Results: Both programs produced significant improvements in all three dimensions of self-regulation. However, mindfulness showed a mediating effect only on emotional self-regulation, not on attention and was inconclusive on behavioral self-regulation. (4) Conclusions: Mindfulness mediates emotional but not attentional self-regulation. The evidence for the mediating role of mindfulness in behavioral regulation was inconclusive. Incorporating mindfulness in educational settings could strengthen emotional self-regulation skills, thereby promoting mental health; however, further studies are needed.

1. Introduction

Emotion, behavior, and attention self-regulation are predictors of better mental health and quality of life, highlighting the importance of their early promotion [1]. The end of childhood and the onset of adolescence represent a critical period for the development of self-regulation [2]. During this stage, a significant reorganization of executive functions and neural networks involved in cognitive and emotional control takes place, leading to progressive advances in the ability to modulate impulses, direct attention voluntarily, and regulate emotions [3]. Hormonal and neurocognitive changes, such as the intensification of synaptic pruning, further underscore the importance of this period for the strengthening of regulatory abilities [4]. Moreover, self-regulation is essential for achieving developmental outcomes such as social and emotional well-being, as well as academic functioning [2,3,5]. Children with deficits in self-regulation are at higher risk of developing physical and mental health problems in adulthood [6,7,8]. Enhancing adaptive self-regulation during childhood and early adolescence is associated with increased physical and emotional health in adulthood, in addition to greater social and economic achievements [1]. Preliminary evidence suggests that mindfulness practice may have a positive effect on attention [9,10], emotion [11,12], and behavior [13,14] self-regulation. Mindfulness can be defined as the awareness that arises from paying attention in a deliberate and non-judgmental way to the present moment, with an attitude of openness and acceptance [15]. Mindfulness can be expressed as a state or as a trait [16]. State mindfulness refers to the transient experience of full and conscious attention at a given moment [17], while trait mindfulness refers to an individual’s habitual tendency to maintain full and conscious attention in daily life, and it can vary among individuals [18]. To understand the psychological mechanisms underlying mindfulness, several theoretical models have been developed. Bishop, Lau [17] proposed a two-component model encompassing the self-regulation of attention and an attitude of openness and acceptance toward present-moment experience. Shapiro, Carlson [19] conceptualized mindfulness as a reperceiving process that fosters meta-awareness and facilitates emotional regulation. Subsequent integrative frameworks [10,20] have highlighted interrelated mechanisms such as attention control, emotion regulation, self-awareness and self-regulation with mindfulness meditation. Collectively, these models can provide a theoretical foundation for understanding mindfulness as a mediating process through which MBIs enhance attentional, emotional, and behavioral regulation capacities.
Both attention—and emotion-focused MBIs have been shown to enhance attentional, emotional and behavioral self-regulation compared to control group [21]. Notably, children who participated in attention-focused program also enhanced their emotional self-regulation, supporting the view that attentional and emotional regulation are interrelated components of self-regulation, as proposed by Tang, Hölzel [10]. These findings suggest that strengthening attentional regulation may provide a foundation for improving emotional regulation, highlighting the interconnected pathways through which MBIs exert their effects. Therefore, examining the mediating role of mindfulness is essential to clarify the mechanisms linking MBIs to changes in attentional and emotional regulation.
While encouraging evidence exists regarding the effects of mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) on self-regulation, the challenge remains to strengthen methodological rigor in evaluating these effects, particularly with respect to the mediating role of mindfulness in these processes. Existing evidence [22] suggests a mediating role of mindfulness among adolescents in relation to psychological well-being, emotional disorders, and empathy. Mediation has been observed only for certain emotional intelligence variables (emotional attention but not emotional clarity or repair), as well as for variables related to academic motivation and school aggression. There is also evidence of a mediating role for one dimension of self-compassion—specifically, self-indifference—and for cognitive reactivity in relation to depression, anxiety, and stress in middle adolescence [23]. However, Daly, Haden [24] found no significant mediating effect of mindfulness on emotional regulation, highlighting inconsistencies in the literature. In relation to self-regulation processes, trait mindfulness has been found to moderate the relationship between fear of missing out (FoMO) and problematic social media use (PSMU), dampening the effect of FoMO on such behavior [25]. Although cross-sectional studies have examined both mediating and moderating effects of mindfulness on self-regulation, it remains unclear whether changes resulting from MBIs are truly mediated by increases in mindfulness itself, as experimental and longitudinal evidence is still limited.
Examining the role of mindfulness as a mediator in strengthening self-regulation during childhood and adolescence is relevant for generating robust evidence on the effectiveness of MBIs designed for this population. Understanding not only whether these interventions are effective but also how their effects occur is key to validating their impact and improving their design. Such evidence is important for informing the development and implementation of educational practices, health prevention strategies, and public policies aimed at improving mental health and holistic development in children and adolescents.
Based on the above, a significant knowledge gap remains regarding the mediating role of mindfulness in attention, emotion, and behavior self-regulation among children and adolescents. Therefore, studying the period encompassing the end of childhood and the beginning of adolescence allows for understanding the processes the effect of mindfulness-based interventions on the self-regulation of attention, emotions, and behavior during a period characterized by significant changes, as well as evaluating the mediating role of mindfulness in this process.
In summary, this study highlights several key innovations. It aims to examine the mediating role of mindfulness in both attention- and emotion-focused MBIs and focuses on the critical developmental transition from late childhood to early adolescence. In addition, the study is conducted within an experimental design (as it will be explained later in the procedure), providing greater clarity regarding the effects of the implemented MBIs. Furthermore, by comparing attention and emotion-focused interventions- an approach rarely addressed in previous research—this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how specific components of mindfulness interventions differentially influence self-regulation processes. By addressing gaps in the literature, the findings are expected to offer novel insights into the mechanisms and efficacy of MBIs, laying the groundwork for the formulation of the study hypotheses and objectives.
Based on the reviewed literature and the identified knowledge gap, it was hypothesized that mindfulness would mediate the effects of attention- and emotion-focused MBIs on attentional, emotional, and behavioral self-regulation.
To test this hypothesis, the following objective was established: to examine whether mindfulness mediates the effects of attention-focused and emotion-focused mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) on attentional, emotional, and behavioral self-regulation.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants and Procedure

Using the snowball sampling technique, 74 children and adolescents between 8 and 12 years of age were recruited. The sample size was calculated using G*Power 3.1 software, considering a design with three experimental groups (a control group, an intervention group focused on attention, and another focused on emotions) and two measurement points (pre- and post-intervention). The statistical test selected was a repeated-measures ANOVA (within–between interaction). A priori power analysis was conducted with an alpha level of 0.05, a statistical power of 0.95, and an expected medium effect size (f = 0.25). The minimum required sample size was 66 participants; therefore, 74 participants were recruited. Although the sample size was estimated for the experimental design rather than specifically for mediation analyses, this limitation is acknowledged in the discussion, noting that the relatively small sample warrants cautious interpretation of the results.
Recruitment was conducted through social networks. Caregivers who expressed interest were subsequently contacted individually and received detailed information about the study via email. Based on participants’ sociodemographic characteristics and background, inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied, and participants were then randomly assigned to one of the three study conditions using a manual lottery. Initial equivalence of the groups in terms of gender, age, and school type (private, public, or subsidized) was ensured.
Inclusion criteria were: (a) being between 8 and 12 years old, and (b) having internet access, as the intervention was delivered online. All procedures complied with the Singapore Statement on Research Integrity and adhered to ethical standards for research involving human participants. Caregivers provided informed consent, and children provided assent via the SurveyMonkey platform. Participation was voluntary, and families were informed of their right to withdraw at any time without penalty. The study protocol received ethical approval from the university’s Research Ethics Committee prior to data collection.
Two mindfulness-based intervention programs were implemented as independent variables, each lasting eight weeks with one-hour weekly sessions. The first program focused on the regulation of attention, including practices designed to enhance awareness of external and internal stimuli (e.g., sounds, sensations, emotions, breathing). The second program focused on the regulation of emotions, incorporating activities aimed at recognizing, labelling, and managing emotions, as well as developing empathy and compassion. Both interventions were manualized and included at-home practices supported by audio and concrete materials.
Program design was supervised by two independent mindfulness experts to ensure content validity and differentiation between attention- and emotion-focused exercises. Three trained instructors—a child psychiatrist, a child psychologist, and a primary school teacher—delivered the interventions in online group sessions (maximum 12 children), accompanied by the principal investigator. Instructor training comprised eight 2 h sessions involving first-person practice and theoretical grounding in mindfulness. A waiting-list control group served as a passive comparison condition. Regarding the instruments, a pilot application was conducted with a school class to assess the clarity of the instruments, leading to minor wording adjustments to enhance language comprehension.
After completing the pre-treatment assessment, participants were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: (1) MBI focusing on emotional self-regulation, (2) MBI focusing on attentional self-regulation, or (3) passive control group (waitlist). Of the initial participants, 70 completed at least 6 of the 8 planned sessions, which was established as a priori as the minimum requirement for inclusion in the analysis. This threshold was established a priori to ensure a minimum level of exposure consistent with the intention-to-treat approach typically applied in experimental designs and randomized controlled trials. These participants constituted the final sample for the mediation analysis (n = 70, Mage = 9.60, SD = 1.01). Gender and group distribution of valid cases are reported in Table 1. The means of dependent variables are presented in Table 2.
The mediation analysis considered those dependent variables that showed a significant change in pre-post intervention (emotional, behavioral, and attentional self-regulation), with the program to which participants were assigned as the categorical independent variable, and mindfulness as the mediating variable.
Generative AI tools were employed to support translation and improve the clarity of the manuscript.

2.2. Instruments

Mindfulness: The Mindful Attention Awareness Scale Adapted for Children (MAAS-C) [26] is a self-report measure that assesses trait mindfulness. It consists of 15 items rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1: almost always, to 6: almost never), focusing on the frequency of inattentive states. The adapted version for adolescent populations (MAAS-A) [27], has been translated into Spanish [28], and for children (MAAS-C) aged 9 to 13 years (study mean age: 11.43 years, SD: 1.07). The number of items (15) and the 6-point Likert scale (1 to 6) were maintained. Exploratory factor analysis of the children’s version [26] indicated one-dimensionality and an internal consistency of 0.84 for the total group (n = 284).
Emotional Self-Regulation: The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) [29,30] was used in its adaptation for adolescent Chilean population [31]. In its original adult version, this self-report measure consists of 36 items structured into six factors [29]. The adaptation for Chile was conducted in two samples: university students and the general population. Factor analysis of the data in both samples indicated a better fit for a five-factor model with 25 items. The internal consistency of the subscales ranged from 0.69 to 0.89, with an overall index of 0.92 for both samples. In the present study, the 25-item, five-factor version validated for the Chilean adolescent population was used, in which the language was modified based on cognitive interviews and expert judges’ opinions [32]. Items are phrased both positively (e.g., item 2: “I pay attention to how I feel”) and negatively (e.g., item 3: “I feel my emotions are overwhelming and out of control”).
Behavioral Self-Regulation: The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) [33,34], parent version, was used. This instrument assesses executive functions aimed at guiding and organizing cognition, emotion, and behavior in children and adolescents aged 5 to 18 years. There is a version for parents and another for teachers. Each version contains 86 items reflecting various behaviors, rated on a 3-point Likert scale (1: never, 3: always). Participants are asked to respond with reference to behaviors observed in their children over the past month. It includes 9 subscales: (1) Inhibition, (2) Flexibility, (3) Emotional Control, (4) Initiative, (5) Working Memory, (6) Planning, (7) Organization of Materials, (8) Task Monitoring, and (9) Self-Monitoring. The caregiver version showed a test–retest reliability of 0.82. The validation study for the Chilean population [35] included a sample of 300 students aged 5 to 18 years. The reliability for each of the 9 subscales were: (1) Flexibility, 0.89; (2) Emotional Control, 0.94; (3) Initiative, 0.87; (4) Working Memory, 0.94; (5) Planning, 0.91; (6) Organization of Materials, 0.92; (7) Task Monitoring, 0.88; (8) Inhibition, 0.95; and (9) Self-Monitoring, 0.85.
Attention Self-Regulation: The computerized version Eriksen and Eriksen [36] Flanker Task was used to assess attentional control, following the tripartite model of attention which includes alerting (state of vigilance and readiness to respond to environmental stimuli), orienting (ability to direct and focus attention on a specific stimulus), and monitoring components (prioritizing the allocation of attention among competing stimuli) [37]. The task requires focusing on a target stimulus while inhibiting responses to distracting information. Response time and accuracy are used as performance indicators. For this experimental study, the PsyToolKit platform was used (https://www.psytoolkit.org/experiment-library/flanker.html#_introduction, accessed on 4 August 2021).
Zelazo, Anderson [38] conducted a psychometric study of the Flanker Task included in the NIH Toolbox, obtaining a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.85 and an intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.83. Another study evaluated test–retest reliability over a 28-day interval and reported a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.69 and an intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.91 [39].

2.3. Data Analysis

To test the significance of the effects, a nonparametric bootstrap technique with 5000 samples was used which is an appropriate technique for making inferences when sample sizes are small [40,41]. For the calculation of values for each vector, the treatment variable was considered categorical with three levels (attention-focused MBI, emotion-focused MBI, and control group). Two dummy variables were created to establish the differences in the means of the dependent variable for each category (attention program or emotion program) relative to the control group. The interpretation of these coefficients corresponds to the mean difference in the dependent variable between the attention and control groups, and between the emotion and control groups, respectively. Age and gender were included as control variables in all models. All mediation analyses were conducted using the estimation approach proposed by Imai, Keele [42], implemented through the mediation package [40] in R version 4.1.0.

3. Results

The dependent variables that showed significant pre-post intervention differences, and were therefore considered for the mediation analysis, were: (1) Emotional Self-Regulation; (2) Behavioral Self-Regulation; (3) Attentional Self-Regulation—Response Time to Incongruent Stimuli. The results of the mediation analyses for each of these variables are presented below.

3.1. Emotional Self-Regulation

In this model, the dependent variable was emotional self-regulation (assessed using the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale, DERS), the independent variable corresponded to the differences in outcomes between each MBI and the control group, and the mediating variable was mindfulness. The results of the mediation analysis (Table 3) indicate that the average indirect effect of the program through mindfulness was significant (ACME = −11.47, 95% CI [−20.80; −4.22], p < 0.001). Once the mediating variable was included, the direct effect of the interventions on emotional self-regulation was no longer significant (ADE = −0.09, 95% CI [−9.55; 9.93], p = 0.98). The total effect of the program was significant (β = −11.56, 95% CI [−20.68; −3.10], p < 0.001), confirming that the improvement in emotional self-regulation is mediated by mindfulness. The proportion mediated was 0.99, 95% CI [0.37; 3.07], p < 0.001, indicating the presence of complete mediation.
As shown in Figure 1, the intervention exhibited differential effects on emotional self-regulation. Since the intervention variable is categorical (in this case, two intervention programs), the effect of each program was calculated directly on the emotional regulation variable (c’1 = −0.09 and c’2 = 5.45, respectively). Although these direct effects are relatively small, the impact on the mindfulness variable was greater (a1 = −14.49 and a2 = −8.23). In turn, mindfulness demonstrated a positive and significant effect on emotional self-regulation (b = 0.79). Taken together, these results confirm that Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs) enhance emotional self-regulation primarily through improvements in mindfulness levels, thus establishing it as a central mechanism.

3.2. Behavioral Self-Regulation

In this model, the dependent variable was behavioral self-regulation (assessed using the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-2, BRIEF-2). The independent variable corresponded to the intervention condition, with mindfulness serving as the mediator. The results are detailed in Table 4 below.
The total effect is marginally significant (p = 0.048), providing some evidence that it may be meaningful; however, this evidence is not strong enough to draw firm conclusions. Further replications and studies are needed to reach more conclusive results. The same applies to the direct effect, suggesting that if there is indeed a treatment effect, there is weak evidence supporting partial mediation through the MAAS, considering a 95% confidence level.
Figure 2 presents the coefficients of the observed relationships among the variables. Considering the overall pattern of results, it is not possible to confidently conclude that the MAAS mediates the relationship between the treatment and the outcome variables.

3.3. Attentional Self-Regulation—Response Time to Incongruent Stimuli

In this model, the dependent variable was attentional self-regulation, operationalized as response time to incongruent stimuli. The independent variable was the intervention, with mindfulness serving as the mediating variable.
As shown in Table 5, the analysis revealed a significant total effect of the interventions on attentional self-regulation (β = −149.72, 95% CI [−237.68; 651.92], p < 0.001).
However, the indirect effect through mindfulness did not reach statistical significance. By contrast, the direct effect remained significant, suggesting that changes in attentional self-regulation are explained primarily by the direct action of the intervention rather than by the mediating effect of mindfulness.
Similarly, the mediated proportion was low and not significant (0.05, 95% CI [−0.24; 0.46], p = 0.69), supporting the conclusion that no mediating role of mindfulness is observed in the relationship between Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs) and attentional self-regulation, operationalized as response time to incongruent stimuli.

4. Discussion

The present study examined the mediating role of mindfulness between two Mindfulness-Based Interventions (MBIs) and self-regulation of behavior, emotions, and attention in children aged 8 to 12 years. The hypothesis was partially confirmed, as the mediating effect of mindfulness was observed for emotional self-regulation, but not for attentional self-regulation. The mediation effect for behavioral self-regulation was inconclusive. These findings suggest that the effects of mindfulness-based programs are not uniform across all self-regulation domains, which warrants discussion considering existing evidence. Although the findings are mixed, they align with previous research showing that some studies support the mediating role of mindfulness in self-regulation [22], whereas others do not find significant effects [24].
Consistent with prior research, the observed mediation supports the utility of MBIs in strengthening emotional modulation in children and early adolescents. Previous studies have documented the effects of mindfulness practice on emotional regulation [43], as well as on the enhancement of executive functions [44], which in turn contribute to better academic adjustment [45] and peer relationships [46]. These results are particularly relevant given that late childhood and early adolescence constitute a critical period for the development of self-regulatory skills [1], which in turn predict better mental health in late adolescence and early adulthood [47,48].
In contrast, the absence of significant mediation for attentional self-regulation and the inconclusive results for behavioral self-regulation merit further consideration. Although the results indicate a significant total effect of MBIs on response time for incongruent stimuli, this effect does not appear to be mediated by mindfulness. One possible interpretation relates to the developmental characteristics of this stage, during which neural networks associated with attentional skills are undergoing cortical maturation and synaptic pruning [4]. This period is marked by a reduction in prefrontal cortex volume, indicating substantial pruning [49]. One consequence of this normative process is that maturation levels may vary among participants (e.g., children aged 8 vs. 12) [50], highlighting the need for analysis in narrower age ranges. Supporting this, evidence indicates that age positively correlates with performance on the Flanker task [51]. Similarly, within frontoparietal networks, specifically the default mode network and attentional systems, age-related improvements have been reported [52]. Such heterogeneity in the maturation of these neural networks may result in differential sensitivity to brief interventions (8 weeks). This raises questions regarding the “minimum effective dose” and the fidelity required in MBI implementation to achieve significant effects on attentional skills [53,54]. Moreover, methodological factors, including the sensitivity of the instruments and the relatively short duration of the intervention (1 h session per 8 weeks)—should be considered when interpreting these findings.
Beyond these specific findings, this study offers some innovative contributions. First, it examines the mediating role of mindfulness within both attention-and-emotion-focused MBIs. Second, it addresses a developmental stage that has received limited empirical attention—the transition from late childhood to early adolescence—providing new insights into self-regulation processes during this critical period. Finally, the use of an experimental design strengthens the causal inferences about effects of the interventions, advancing the methodological rigor in mindfulness research with younger populations.
From an applied perspective, these findings underscore the relevance of implementing MBIs within educational settings as evidence-based strategies to foster emotional self-regulation [55,56]. Such programs may be particularly beneficial for students undergoing the transition from late childhood to early adolescence, a period characterized by significant maturation of self-regulatory processes. The fidelity of program implementation should be systematically monitored, and teachers or facilitators should receive appropriate training to ensure high quality delivery. Integrating MBIs into the school curriculum in a structured manner, tailored to the developmental characteristics of each educational stage, could help foster students’ self-regulation, and, consequently, promote their mental health and emotional well-being.
However, it is important to maintain a critical perspective that integrates a developmental approach, as intervention effectiveness may vary depending on developmental stage, individual differences, and contextual factors. Indeed, evidence has shown that universal mindfulness programs do not produce significant effects in adolescent populations, in contrast to children [57]. Despite the promising effects of MBIs, the evidence to date remains inconclusive [58]. Therefore, generalizations should be avoided, attention should be paid to the limitations of each study, and future research should investigate the effects of MBIs across developmental stages and specific subpopulations to clarify the conditions that enable their potential effectiveness.
The present study has several methodological limitations that warrant careful consideration. First, the online administration of all assessments may have affected children’s reading comprehension of self-report measures. Additionally, the sample included children as young as 8 years old. Although a pilot application was conducted with a school class to adjust wording and ensure greater clarity of the items, potential difficulties in reading comprehension among the youngest participants should be considered as a limitation of this study. The virtual format may have also affected adherence to the program. Although this was addressed in the pre-post effect analysis using linear mixed models [59] sample attrition at the post-test remains a limitation of this study. In addition, the relatively small sample size (n = 70), limits statistical power, particularly for detecting small to moderate effects in mediation analyses. Consequently, the findings should be interpreted with caution, and replication in future studies using larger samples is needed to strengthen the robustness and generalizability of the results. The use of a snowball sampling procedure represents a limitation because it may limit sample representativeness. Finally, the study focused on short-term effects, which constrains understanding of long-term impact of the MBIs.
Another limitation is the exclusive reliance on self-report measures, which may be subject to social desirability and response biases. Although the instruments showed adequate psychometric properties, self-perceptions may not fully capture participants’ actual levels of mindfulness or socioemotional competencies. Future research could benefit from incorporating complementary methods, such as behavioral tasks, physiological indicators, or teacher/parent reports, to obtain a more comprehensive and objective assessment of mindfulness and related outcomes. Moreover, contextual factors, such as family support or school climate, were not evaluated. These unmeasured variables could have moderated or mediated the intervention effects, limiting the ability to explain the variability in outcomes.
Future studies should address these limitations by increasing sample sizes, diversifying participant characteristics and incorporating longitudinal designs to observe the evolution of effects over time and explore explanatory models of change.
Consistent with the findings of the present study, it would be important to explore alternative mediating mechanisms, such as stress reduction or the enhancement of interpersonal skills, which may underlie the observed changes. Another relevant factor for future research is the duration and dosage of programs, considering the characteristics and constraints of each developmental stage [60,61,62,63,64].

5. Conclusions

The present study was designed to determine the mediating role of mindfulness on the self-regulation of emotions, behavior, and attention. The findings suggest that mindfulness-based programs may represent a promising approach to fostering emotional self-regulation in late childhood and early adolescence. However, given the small sample size, these results should be interpreted with caution and not generalized beyond similar contexts. The effects on attentional and behavioral self-regulation appear to depend on additional developmental and contextual factors, as well as on specific characteristics of the intervention, such as duration and structure. Overall, the study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the potential effects and boundaries of MBIs in late childhood and early adolescence. It contributes theoretically by offering insights into the mediating role of mindfulness in self-regulation and practically by informing the design of evidence-based interventions tailored to the developmental needs of each stage.

Author Contributions

B.P. designed the study and coordinated the data collection. B.P.; C.O.; I.B.-P. and W.P. contributed to the data analysis and manuscript preparation. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

C.O. and W.P. declare having received financial support from the National Agency for Research and Development (ANID)/International Cooperation Program/Project MEC80180087 of the Chilean Ministry of Science, Technology, Knowledge, and Innovation. C.O. declares having received funding from the postdoctoral grant “Becas Chile” ID74220048, from ANID. B.P. declares having received funding from Doctoral Scholarship No. 21180390 from the ANID Institutional Review Board.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Helsinki Declaration and approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidad de Concepción, code 01122018; date approval: 1 December 2018.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all the caregivers, and informed assent was obtained from all minors involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Adolescents 05 00072 g001
Figure 1. Mediation Effect of Mindfulness on Emotional Self-Regulation.
Figure 1. Mediation Effect of Mindfulness on Emotional Self-Regulation.
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Adolescents 05 00072 g002
Figure 2. Mediation Effect of Mindfulness on Behavioral Self-Regulation.
Figure 2. Mediation Effect of Mindfulness on Behavioral Self-Regulation.
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Table 1. Specific distribution of cases by condition, age, and gender.
Table 1. Specific distribution of cases by condition, age, and gender.
Groupn
Girls		n
Boys		Total n
Post-MBI		Girls Age
(DS)		Boys Age
(DS)		Mean Age
Attention1410249.93 (1.33)9.90 (0.88)9.91
Emotion13122410.00 (0.60)9.50 (0.80)9.75
Control129229.08 (1.04)9.11 (1.05)9.09
Total3931709.66 (1.10)9.51 (0.92)9.60
Table 2. Mean and SD of dependent variables by experimental group at pre-post time.
Table 2. Mean and SD of dependent variables by experimental group at pre-post time.
VariablePre-Intervention AssessmentPost-Intervention Assessment
Emotion
MBI
(SD) 		Attention MBI
(SD)		Control Group
(SD)		Emotion
MBI
(SD) 		Attention MBI
(SD)		Control Group (SD)
Mindfulness (MAAS-C)37.84 (10.07)36.75
(11.03)		39.14
(5.39)		33.40 (10.51)26.24 (5.39)41.05 (11.81)
Emotional self-regulation (DERS)70.48 (14.94)65.33 (14.39)60.75
(12.81)		64.35 (14.58)52.90 (8.68)64.47 (17.06)
Behavioral self-regulation (BRIEF-2)112.84 (18.54)114.58 (23.03)118.14
(21.40)		105.40 (16.39)109.57 (21.04)121.55 (17.73)
Response time to incongruent stimuli (Flanker task)900.65 (134.56)932.14 (153.58)946.33 (163.95)803.75 (103.44)748.95 (123.33)921.78 (147.88)
Error Rate for congruent stimuli (Flanker task)21.59 (17.66)22.65 (15.85)19.03 (15.45)14.52 (12.63)13.03 (10.10)19.09 (16.50)
Table 3. Mediation Analysis of Mindfulness on Emotional Self-Regulation.
Table 3. Mediation Analysis of Mindfulness on Emotional Self-Regulation.
Estimate95% CI Lower95% CI Upperp-Value
ACME−11.47−20.80−4.220.0004 ***
ADE−0.09−9.559.930.9892
Total Effect (β)−11.56−20.68−3.100.0072 **
Prop. Mediated0.990.373.070.0076 **
Notes: ACME = Average Causal Mediation Effect; ADE = Average Direct Effect (of the intervention program on Y in the presence of the mediator); Mediated Prop. = Mediated Proportion; 95% CI Lower = Lower Bound of the Confidence Interval; 95% CI Upper = Upper Bound of the Confidence Interval. ** = p < 0.005; *** = p < 0.0005.
Table 4. Mediation Analysis of Mindfulness on Behavioral Self-Regulation.
Table 4. Mediation Analysis of Mindfulness on Behavioral Self-Regulation.
Estimate95% CI Lower95% CI Upperp-Value
ACME−0.03−4.055.020.9660
ADE−11.83−24.06−0.420.0428 *
Total Effect (β)−11.86−24.21−0.110.0480 *
Prop. Mediated0.0020.970.530.9452
Notes: ACME = Average Causal Mediation Effect; ADE = Average Direct Effect (of the intervention program on Y in the presence of the mediator); Mediation Prop. = Mediated Proportion; 95% CI Lower = Lower Bound of the Confidence Interval; 95% CI Upper = Upper Bound of the Confidence Interval. * = p < 0.05.
Table 5. Mediation Analysis of Mindfulness on Attentional Self-Regulation—Response Time to Incongruent Stimuli.
Table 5. Mediation Analysis of Mindfulness on Attentional Self-Regulation—Response Time to Incongruent Stimuli.
Estimate95% CI Lower95% CI Upperp-Value
ACME−7.72−49.7240.340.6932
ADE−141.99−256.26−42.420.0052 **
Total Effect (β)−149.72−237.68−65.920.0004 ***
Prop. Mediated0.05−0.240.460.6936
Notes: ACME = Average Causal Mediation Effect; ADE = Average Direct Effect (of the intervention program on Y in the presence of the mediator); Mediation Prop. = Mediated Proportion; 95% CI Lower = Lower Bound of the Confidence Interval; 95% CI Upper = Upper Bound of the Confidence Interval. ** = p < 0.005; *** = p < 0.0005.
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Porter, B.; Oyanadel, C.; Betancourt-Peters, I.; Peñate, W. The Mediating Role of Mindfulness in Attentional, Emotional, and Behavioral Self-Regulation During Late Childhood and Early Adolescence. Adolescents 2025, 5, 72. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5040072

AMA Style

Porter B, Oyanadel C, Betancourt-Peters I, Peñate W. The Mediating Role of Mindfulness in Attentional, Emotional, and Behavioral Self-Regulation During Late Childhood and Early Adolescence. Adolescents. 2025; 5(4):72. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5040072

Chicago/Turabian Style

Porter, Bárbara, Cristian Oyanadel, Ignacio Betancourt-Peters, and Wenceslao Peñate. 2025. "The Mediating Role of Mindfulness in Attentional, Emotional, and Behavioral Self-Regulation During Late Childhood and Early Adolescence" Adolescents 5, no. 4: 72. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5040072

APA Style

Porter, B., Oyanadel, C., Betancourt-Peters, I., & Peñate, W. (2025). The Mediating Role of Mindfulness in Attentional, Emotional, and Behavioral Self-Regulation During Late Childhood and Early Adolescence. Adolescents, 5(4), 72. https://doi.org/10.3390/adolescents5040072

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