Prevalence and Diversity of Gastrointestinal Parasites and Tick Species in Communal Feedlots Compared to Rural Free-Grazing Cattle in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

Abstract

Gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs) and tick infestations remain critical health challenges limiting cattle productivity in rural South Africa, particularly within communal farming systems. The Eastern Cape Province, characterized by high livestock densities and variable management practices, provides a unique context in which to examine parasitic burdens across systems. This study aimed to compare the prevalence, intensity, and diversity of GIPs and tick species in cattle raised under rural communal grazing versus communal feedlot systems in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. A total of 160 cattle (n = 80 per system) were randomly selected for fecal and tick examinations in community-based feedlots in Holela (Centane) and Gxwalibomvu (Tsomo), as well as from surrounding rural villages. Fecal samples were analyzed using the McMaster technique to determine fecal egg counts (FEC), while tick species were identified and counted from standardized body regions. Body condition scores (BCS) were recorded, and farmer practices related to parasite control were surveyed. Results showed significantly higher GI parasite prevalence and FEC in rural community cattle compared to feedlot cattle (p < 0.05), with Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus spp. being the most prevalent. Similarly, rural cattle had significantly higher tick infestation rates, dominated by Rhipicephalus microplus and Amblyomma hebraeum. Logistic regression identified rural production system, poor body condition (BCS ≤ 2), and absence of recent deworming as significant risk factors for GI parasitism (p < 0.05). Strong negative correlations were found between BCS and both FEC (r = −0.63) and tick burden (r = −0.57). Additionally, rural farmers reported lower acaricide usage and greater reliance on traditional remedies. The study confirms that rural communal systems expose cattle to higher parasitic risks due to unmanaged grazing, limited veterinary support, and poor parasite control strategies. Communal feedlots, by contrast, offer more controlled conditions that reduce parasitic burden. Integrating strategic parasite management, farmer training, and expanded veterinary outreach is essential to improving cattle health and productivity in communal areas.

1. Introduction

Livestock production remains a cornerstone of rural livelihoods and food security in sub-Saharan Africa [1,2], with cattle playing a central role in socio-economic sustenance [3], draught power “draught power refers to the use of cattle for pulling ploughs and carts, especially in agricultural activities”, and protein supply [4]. In South Africa, and particularly in the Eastern Cape province, smallholder farmers rely heavily on cattle rearing as a major component of mixed farming systems [5,6]. However, the productivity and health of cattle are severely compromised by parasitic infestations [7], notably gastrointestinal (GI) parasites and ticks, which are among the most prevalent and economically significant constraints to livestock development in the region [8,9,10].

Gastrointestinal nematodes, such as Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus spp., and Oesophagostomum spp., cause chronic infections in cattle, leading to reduced feed conversion efficiency, anemia, weight loss, and, in severe cases, mortality [11,12]. Concurrently, tick infestations not only induce physical damage and stress but also act as vectors of devastating tick-borne diseases (TBDs) such as babesiosis, anaplasmosis, and heartwater [13,14]. The impact of these parasites is often amplified in resource-limited communal and rural settings, where poor access to veterinary services, lack of structured parasite control programs, and inadequate knowledge of best practices in herd health management prevail [15,16].

Over the past decade, interest has grown in understanding how livestock management systems influence disease prevalence and animal performance. In South Africa, communal feedlots, semi-intensive systems managed collectively by farmers, are increasingly promoted to improve market access, reduce disease risk, and enhance growth performance [17,18,19]. Despite their potential advantages over traditional rural communal grazing systems, including improved biosecurity and parasite control, empirical data comparing parasite burdens across these systems remain limited. This study aimed to compare the prevalence, intensity, and diversity of gastrointestinal parasites and tick species in cattle managed under communal feedlot and rural communal grazing systems in the Eastern Cape Province. It also sought to identify key risk factors associated with parasitic infections and document existing control measures practiced by farmers. The findings are intended to support targeted interventions for improved animal health management in smallholder cattle production systems.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Description of the Study Area

2.1.1. Geographic Location

The present study was conducted in two community-based cattle feedlots located in Holela, Centane, and Gxwalibomvu, Tsomo, within the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa (Figure 1). These feedlots were selected due to their strategic roles in supporting communal livestock production and their accessibility to multiple surrounding villages. The Holela feedlot in Centane services five villages: Holela, KwaZingxala, Jojweni, Mapondweni, and KwaMaxhama. The Gxwalibomvu feedlot in Tsomo caters to farmers from the villages of Komkhulu, Gxwalibomvu, Qombolo, KuHange, and EsiXhotyeni. These areas fall under the Mnquma and Intsika Yethu Local Municipalities, respectively. Centane is located at 32.18° S latitude and 28.02° E longitude, at an elevation of approximately 501 m above sea level, while Tsomo lies at 31.93° S latitude and 27.64° E longitude, with an elevation of 1083 m.

2.1.2. Social and Agricultural Aspects

Both municipalities form part of the rural, agriculturally dependent zones of the Eastern Cape Province and are characterized by steep socio-economic challenges. These include limited infrastructure, high youth unemployment, and heavy reliance on government social grants [20]. Agriculture, especially subsistence livestock production and small-scale cropping, is the primary livelihood strategy. Cattle serve both economic and cultural functions in these communities [11]. The communal feedlots in Holela and Gxwalibomvu were established to improve cattle management, enhance market access, and facilitate organized disease control for local farmers. These facilities allow for semi-intensive livestock finishing, providing opportunities for improved animal health monitoring, nutritional supplementation, and parasite control before slaughter or sale [4,21].

2.1.3. Climatic and Ecological Aspects

The Eastern Cape region experiences significant climatic variability, including periods of drought and occasional floods. The annual average rainfall is approximately 473.2 mm, mostly received between November and April. Summers are moderately hot and winters relatively cool, with average maximum and minimum daily temperatures of 25.8 °C and 11.2 °C, respectively. Humidity averages 72.1% annually. The region follows a four-season cycle that shapes farming practices: post-rainy (March–May), cold-dry (June–August), hot-dry (September–November), and hot-wet (December–February). Ecologically, the landscape consists of rolling lowlands and scattered mountainous areas. The dominant vegetation is Bhisho Thornveld, comprising diverse woody and herbaceous species such as Acacia karroo, Themeda triandra, Panicum maximum, Digitaria eriantha, Eragrostis spp., Cynodon dactylon, and Pennisetum clandestinum [22,23]. Soil types are primarily sedimentary, sand and mudstone, with some igneous intrusions resulting in fertile red soils in certain zones [24]. These soil and vegetation characteristics, along with the communal grazing system, directly influence forage quality and parasite transmission dynamics.

2.2. Study Design and Sampling Procedure

A cross-sectional study design was employed to assess the prevalence and intensity of gastrointestinal parasites (GIPs) and tick species in cattle managed under two contrasting systems: rural communal grazing and communal feedlots. The study focused on determining the point prevalence of parasitic infections at a single time point across both systems. A total of 160 cattle were randomly selected for inclusion in the study, 80 cattle from rural communal grazing areas and 80 from communal feedlots, with 20 animals per community per system. The selection was stratified by breed type (indigenous Nguni and crossbred cattle), age group (≤2 years, 3–5 years, ≥6 years), and sex, to ensure representation across key demographic variables that may influence parasite burden. The sample size of 160 animals was calculated using Cochran’s formula for estimating sample sizes in prevalence studies:

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{{\mathrm{Z}}^2\cdot \mathrm{p}\cdot (1-\mathrm{p})}{{\mathrm{d}}^2}}$$

where:

n = required sample size; Z = Z-score corresponding to a 95% confidence level (1.96); p = expected prevalence (set at 0.5 or 50% to maximize sample size); d = margin of error (0.05 or 5%).

$$n={\displaystyle \frac{{\left(1.96\right)}^2\cdot 0.5\cdot (1-0.5)}{{\left(0.05\right)}^2}}=384.16$$

Given the finite cattle population in the selected communities, the sample was adjusted using a finite population correction factor. The revised minimum sample was then proportionally distributed across sites to ensure logistical feasibility and representation, resulting in a final sample size of 160. Similar sample sizes have been employed in previous epidemiological studies investigating parasitism in smallholder cattle populations in South Africa [13,16], providing sufficient statistical power to detect differences in parasite occurrence between systems. A stratified random sampling approach was used, in which cattle were grouped based on location and production system. Within each stratum, animals were identified with temporary chalk marks, and simple random sampling was applied using a random number table without replacement. This approach minimized selection bias while achieving a representative distribution of cattle characteristics. To ensure consistency and animal welfare during sampling, cattle were humanely restrained in standard crush pens located at communal dip tanks and handling facilities. Trained animal health technicians supervised the procedures to minimize stress and avoid injuries. Age classification was conducted using dentition scoring, based on incisor eruption and wear patterns, and cross-checked with oral records provided by farmers where available, ensuring accuracy for age-based parasite risk analysis.

2.3. Animal Handling and Ethical Considerations

All animals were handled in accordance with the ethical guidelines of the University of Fort Hare Animal Ethics Committee (Ethical clearance number: UFH/2025/AEC/021). The study adhered to internationally recognized standards for the ethical treatment of animals in research, including the principles outlined in the OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code and the International Guiding Principles for Biomedical Research Involving Animals. Verbal informed consent was obtained from community livestock owners prior to sampling. To ensure animal welfare, all procedures were conducted with minimal restraint and stress, using appropriate handling facilities (e.g., crush pens) and overseen by trained personnel. No animals were harmed or treated during the study period, and sampling was non-invasive and aligned with welfare protocols.

2.4. Parasitological Sampling and Laboratory Analysis

2.4.1. Gastrointestinal Parasite Identification

Fresh rectal fecal samples were collected directly from each animal using sterile gloves and placed into labeled, airtight containers. Samples were stored in cooler boxes at 4 °C and transported to the Parasitology Laboratory at the Department of Agriculture within 12 h for analysis. Fecal Egg Counts (FECs) were performed using the modified McMaster technique, which quantifies helminth eggs per gram (EPG) of feces. Each sample was prepared by mixing 2 g of feces with 28 mL of saturated sodium chloride (NaCl) flotation solution. A 0.15 mL aliquot of the homogenized suspension was loaded into each chamber of a McMaster counting slide. Counts were performed in duplicate for each sample, and results were averaged to enhance accuracy. The method had a detection threshold of 50 EPG. Eggs were examined microscopically at 10× and 40× magnification, and parasite genera were tentatively classified based on general morphological characteristics such as egg shape, size, and shell appearance. However, due to the high degree of morphological similarity among the eggs of the Trichostrongyloidea superfamily, differentiation to genus level (Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Oesoph-agostomum) was not definitive. As accurate genus-level identification of strongyle-type eggs is not reliably achievable through egg morphology alone, the results were interpreted cautiously. Identification based solely on egg morphology was used for preliminary categorization, but it is acknowledged that coproculture and larval identification would have provided more reliable genus-level confirmation. Unfortunately, due to logistical constraints, larval culture techniques were not performed in this study. The findings reported here, particularly those referring to Haemonchus and Trichostrongylus, are thus putative and based on egg morphology and should be interpreted within the limitations of the McMaster technique.

2.4.2. Tick Collection and Identification

External examination of cattle was conducted using a standardized protocol that included inspection of the ears, perineum, dewlap, belly, udder/scrotum, and tail region. Ticks were carefully removed using sterilized fine-tipped forceps and preserved in 70% ethanol-filled vials labeled with animal ID and body region of collection. In the laboratory, ticks were identified to species level under a stereomicroscope using morphological keys by [9]. The total number of ticks per animal and per species was recorded.

2.5. Body Condition Scoring

Trained assessors performed visual and palpation-based body condition scoring using a standardized 5-point scale (1 = emaciated to 5 = obese), focusing on key anatomical landmarks such as ribs, spinous processes, and tail head fat deposits. In addition to BCS, animal data such as breed, sex, and age were recorded to analyze potential correlations with parasitic burden.

2.6. Statistical Analysis

Data were entered into Microsoft Excel and analyzed using R version 3.4.2 (2017-09-28) (R Core Team, 2017) [25], and GraphPad Prism version 9.5.1 (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA). Descriptive statistics were used to calculate prevalence rates (%), mean eggs per gram (EPG) for gastrointestinal parasites, and mean tick counts. Prior to inferential analysis, the Shapiro–Wilk test was employed to assess the normality of continuous variables, while Levene’s test was used to evaluate homogeneity of variances. Multicollinearity among predictor variables in the regression models was checked using variance inflation factors (VIFs), with a threshold of VIF < 5 considered acceptable. Pearson’s Chi-square tests were used to evaluate differences in parasite prevalence, while Levene’s test assessed homogeneity of variance prior to applying independent t-tests for comparing mean FECs and tick counts between systems. Pearson correlation coefficients assessed the relationship between fecal egg counts and body condition scores (BCS). For BCS, values ≤ 2 were coded as 1 (poor condition), and values ≥ 3 were coded as 0 (moderate to good condition) for binary logistic regression analysis. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to assess the joint effect of production system, age category, sex, and breed on parasite loads, with significance determined at p < 0.05. To control potential confounding effects related to seasonality, the study was conducted within a single month during the summer season (January 2025), which represents a peak period for parasite activity due to favorable temperature and rainfall conditions. However, no additional environmental variables such as exact rainfall data were measured during the study.

3. Results

3.1. Prevalence of Gastrointestinal Parasites (Based on Morphological Egg Grouping)

Due to the morphological similarity of strongyle-type eggs (Trichostrongyloidea) under light microscopy, parasite identification was limited to broader nematode groupings. Specific identification to genus level (Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus) was not attempted from egg morphology alone. Instead, eggs were reported as strongyle-type, and only genera with morphologically distinct eggs (Oesophagostomum, Strongyloides) were individually classified. Strongyle-type eggs were significantly more prevalent in rural cattle (87%) than in feedlot cattle (65%) (p < 0.001), suggesting higher exposure to grazing-related infection sources in rural settings as presented in

Table 1. Prevalence of GI Parasites by morphological egg groupings and production system.

Parasite Group	Communal Feedlot (%)	Rural Community (%)	p-Value
Strongyle-type eggs	65	87	<0.001
Oesophagostomum spp.	20	35	0.042
Mixed infections	33	60	0.001

Note: Significant at p < 0.05.

. Oesophagostomum spp. was also significantly more prevalent in rural cattle (35%) compared to feedlot animals (20%) (p = 0.042). Mixed infections, presence of multiple nematode egg types, were detected in 60% of rural cattle compared to 33% in feedlots (p = 0.001).

3.2. Fecal Egg Counts (FEC)

As shown in

Table 2. Mean Fecal Egg Counts (FEC) by production system.

Production System	Mean FEC (EPG) ± SD	Min–Max EPG	p-Value
Communal Feedlot	642 ± 215	100–1150
Rural Community	1210 ± 396	250–2050	<0.001

Note: Significant at p < 0.05.

, mean fecal egg counts (FEC) were significantly higher in rural cattle, with a mean of 1210 ± 396 eggs per gram (EPG), compared to 642 ± 215 EPG in feedlot cattle (p < 0.001). These results reflect a heavier worm burden in extensively managed herds, likely due to continuous pasture exposure, limited deworming, and inadequate biosecurity measures.

3.3. Tick Species and Prevalence

As shown in

Table 3. Tick species prevalence by production system.

Tick Species	Communal Feedlot (%)	Rural Community (%)	p-Value
R. microplus	50	70	0.010
R. decoloratus	35	58	0.007
R. evertsi evertsi	20	28	0.243
Amblyomma hebraeum	15	32	0.012
Mixed infestations	42	65	0.003

Note: Significant at p < 0.05.

Ticks were more prevalent and diverse in rural cattle. Rhipicephalus microplus was the most common species, significantly more prevalent in rural cattle (70%) than in feedlot cattle (50%) (p = 0.010). Amblyomma hebraeum, a vector of heartwater, showed a higher prevalence in rural cattle (32%) compared to 15% in feedlot cattle (p = 0.012). Mixed infestations were also significantly more frequent in rural herds (65%) than in feedlots (42%) (p = 0.003).

3.4. Risk Factors for GI Parasite Prevalence

As presented in

Table 4. Risk factors for GI parasite infection.

Variable	OR (95% CI)	p-Value
Production system (Rural)	2.43 (1.35–4.37)	0.003
No recent deworming	3.18 (1.70–5.92)	<0.001
Poor body condition (BCS ≤ 2)	2.01 (1.05–3.87)	0.035

Note: Significant at p < 0.05.

, logistic regression revealed that cattle in rural systems were significantly more likely to be infected (OR = 2.43, p = 0.003). Lack of recent deworming significantly increased infection risk (OR = 3.18, p < 0.001). Poor body condition (BCS ≤ 2) was also associated with increased risk (OR = 2.01, p = 0.035).

3.5. Body Condition Score (BCS) Distribution

Significant differences in BCS were noted between systems in

Table 5. BCS distribution.

BCS Category	Feedlot Cattle (%)	Rural Cattle (%)	p-Value
Poor (1–2)	12	38	0.001
Moderate (3)	48	42	0.417
Good (4–5)	40	20	0.003

Note: Significant at p < 0.05.

. A higher proportion of rural cattle were in poor condition (38%) compared to feedlot cattle (12%) (p = 0.001). Good condition scores (BCS 4–5) were more prevalent in feedlots (40%) than rural systems (20%) (p = 0.003).

3.6. Tick Burden

Rural cattle carried a significantly heavier tick burden as shown in

Table 6. Tick burden (Mean count per animal).

Tick Species	Feedlot (Mean ± SD)	Rural (Mean ± SD)	p-Value
R. microplus	8.5 ± 3.2	12.1 ± 4.5	0.006
R. decoloratus	6.2 ± 2.8	9.0 ± 3.9	0.012
Amblyomma hebraeum	3.0 ± 1.1	4.8 ± 1.6	0.010
Total ticks/animal	17.7 ± 6.5	25.9 ± 7.8	<0.001

Note: Significant at p < 0.05.

. R. microplus and R. decoloratus counts were higher in rural animals, contributing to a total mean tick count of 25.9 ± 7.8 ticks per rural animal compared to 17.7 ± 6.5 in feedlot cattle (p < 0.001).

3.7. Tick Control Practices

Tick control practices were more consistent in feedlots as presented in

Table 7. Tick control practices reported by farmers.

Practice	Feedlot (%)	Rural (%)	p-Value
Regular acaricide use	85	40	<0.001
Traditional remedies	5	30	<0.001
No tick control	10	30	0.002

Note: Significant at p < 0.05.

. Regular acaricide use was reported by 85% of feedlot managers, versus only 40% of rural farmers (p < 0.001). Traditional remedies were more commonly used in rural systems (30% vs. 5%) (p < 0.001), and 30% of rural respondents reported no tick control at all (p = 0.002).

3.8. Correlation Matrix Between Body Condition Score (BCS) and Selected Variables

As shown in

Table 8. Spearman’s rank correlation matrix between Body Condition Score (BCS) and selected variables.

Variable	BCS	GI Parasite FEC	Total Tick Count	Production System	Deworming Status
Body Condition Score (BCS)	-	−0.63 **	−0.57 **	−0.45 *	−0.51 **
GI Parasite Fecal Egg Count		-	0.48 *	0.53 **	0.49 *
Total Tick Count			-	0.42 *	0.38 *
Production System (Rural = 1, Feedlot = 0)				-	0.46 *
Deworming Status (Yes = 0, No = 1)					-

Notes: Production system is coded as Rural = 1, Feedlot = 0; Deworming status is coded as Yes = 0, No = 1. ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.

, BCS was negatively correlated with GI parasite egg counts (r = −0.63, p < 0.01), total tick count (r = −0.57, p < 0.01), and absence of deworming (r = −0.51, p < 0.01). A negative correlation was also noted with production system, indicating poorer body condition among rural cattle.

4. Discussion

The present study aimed to compare gastrointestinal (GI) parasite and tick infestation patterns in cattle managed under communal feedlot systems versus those in rural communal grazing systems in South Africa. Results clearly demonstrated significantly higher prevalence and intensity of both internal and external parasites in rural community-managed cattle compared to those in feedlots. This disparity can be attributed to differences in animal husbandry practices, access to veterinary care, grazing systems, and biosecurity measures.

4.1. Gastrointestinal Parasite Burden

Rural cattle exhibited a significantly higher prevalence of strongyle-type eggs (87%) compared to feedlot cattle (65%), and their mean fecal egg counts (FECs) were nearly double. These findings align with previous studies which have consistently reported higher worm burdens in extensively grazed cattle due to increased exposure to contaminated pasture and poor anthelmintic intervention [26,27]. In the current study, only morphologically distinct nematode eggs such as Oesophagostomum and Strongyloides were differentiated, while strongyle-type eggs were grouped together due to the inability to accurately identify species based solely on egg morphology. This approach, although limiting, is widely used in field parasitology due to its practicality [28,29]. Differentiation of genera within the Trichostrongyloidea superfamily (Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Ostertagia) requires larval culture or molecular diagnostic tools, which were beyond the scope of the current study. Therefore, results based on strongyle-type eggs, while not species-specific, are still valuable indicators of GI nematode infection pressure and are supported by prior field studies [30]. The significantly higher FECs in rural cattle suggest a heavy parasitic challenge that could impact productivity, particularly in the absence of routine and effective deworming. High FECs have been associated with reduced feed intake, impaired nutrient absorption, and lower weight gains [31]. Moreover, mixed infections in 60% of rural cattle further reflect poor parasite control and the continuous cycle of reinfection facilitated by communal grazing systems, as supported by studies in other parts of sub-Saharan Africa [32].

4.2. Risk Factors for GI Parasite Infections

Regression analysis identified several key risk factors associated with increased GI parasite prevalence. Cattle from rural systems were more than twice as likely to be infected compared to those in feedlots. This can be attributed to the absence of structured deworming programs, the unrestricted movement of animals in shared grazing areas, and the lack of rotational grazing practices. These findings agree with earlier reports indicating that communal farming systems create conducive conditions for sustained helminth transmission due to high stocking densities and low levels of parasite control [28,33]. Poor body condition score (BCS ≤ 2) was also significantly associated with higher parasite loads. This relationship is consistent with the “vicious cycle” described by [34], in which malnourished animals have reduced immunity, making them more susceptible to infection, which further compromises nutritional status and productivity. Importantly, lack of recent deworming emerged as a strong risk factor. Farmers in rural systems often rely on sporadic and sometimes ineffective deworming regimes due to financial constraints, poor access to veterinary services, and the use of substandard or counterfeit products [21]. These challenges emphasize the need for farmer education and sustainable parasite control strategies that take into account the socio-economic context of rural livestock keepers.

4.3. External Parasite (Tick) Infestation

Tick infestation patterns mirrored those observed for GI parasites, with significantly higher tick burdens and species diversity in rural cattle. Rhipicephalus microplus was the most prevalent species and occurred significantly more often in rural herds (70%) than in feedlot herds (50%). This species is a known vector of Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina, causative agents of bovine babesiosis [10,16], highlighting potential disease risks in rural herds. The higher prevalence of Amblyomma hebraeum in rural cattle is particularly concerning, as this tick is a vector for Ehrlichia ruminantium, the agent of heartwater, a disease endemic to southern Africa with significant economic impact [13]. The presence of such vectors in rural herds without adequate tick control measures increases the risk of outbreaks and associated mortality. The total tick burden per animal was significantly higher in rural cattle (25.9 ± 7.8 ticks) compared to feedlot cattle (17.7 ± 6.5). These findings are supported by studies in other African countries where poor acaricide application, infrequent dipping, and traditional tick control methods led to high tick infestations [28,35].

4.4. Tick Control Practices and Challenges

Effective tick control was more prevalent in feedlots, where structured management systems facilitate regular acaricide application and monitoring. Conversely, rural farmers faced multiple constraints, including inconsistent acaricide availability, lack of technical knowledge, and resistance to chemical control methods. Traditional remedies were widely used in rural systems (30%), a practice observed in other studies across Africa, reflecting both cultural preferences and economic limitations [9,15]. However, the efficacy of these remedies remains largely anecdotal and unstandardized, necessitating further investigation into their potential role in integrated parasite management. The high proportion of rural farmers (30%) who reported no tick control reflects systemic weaknesses in animal health service delivery in communal areas. These gaps present opportunities for targeted extension services, public-private partnerships, and community-based animal health worker programs to improve awareness and access to parasite control interventions.

4.5. Body Condition Score and Parasitism

Body condition was significantly poorer in rural cattle, with 38% having a BCS ≤ 2, compared to 12% in feedlot cattle. Poor condition was negatively correlated with FECs and tick burdens, corroborating previous findings that parasitism exerts a substantial toll on cattle health and productivity [11,36]. In rural settings where feed supplementation is minimal or absent, the compounding effect of parasites and nutritional stress can severely compromise reproductive efficiency, growth, and overall resilience. Feedlot cattle, by contrast, benefited from concentrated feeding, confinement, and controlled exposure to parasites, leading to better BCS and lower parasite prevalence. This underlines the critical importance of improved nutrition and parasite management in enhancing the health and productivity of cattle in extensive systems.

4.6. Methodological Considerations and Limitations

Although the study provides important insights, it is not without limitations. The primary constraint was the inability to morphologically differentiate between strongyle-type eggs. Although grouping these eggs is standard in field surveys [28,31], future studies should consider larval culture or PCR-based techniques for species-specific identification. This would allow for targeted treatment strategies, particularly in distinguishing between Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, and Ostertagia, genera with varying pathogenicity and resistance profiles [12,36]. Additionally, tick counts were performed visually without molecular confirmation of species identity. Although morphological identification is standard and sufficient for many species, cryptic species and hybrids may go undetected [32]. Integration of molecular methods would enhance the robustness of future surveys.

5. Conclusions

This study reveals significant differences in parasitism between cattle raised in feedlots and those in rural communal systems. Cattle in rural areas experience much higher levels of gastrointestinal parasites and ticks, exacerbated by poor body condition and insufficient control measures. These findings highlight the urgent need for integrated parasite management programs specifically designed for rural farmers, which should include enhanced access to veterinary services, education for farmers, and alternative control strategies. Although there are some methodological limitations, the study offers a valuable epidemiological snapshot and serves as a foundation for future research using advanced diagnostic tools.