Next Article in Journal
From Na2Cl to CaCl: Progress in the 2D Crystals of Unconventional Stoichiometries in Ambient Conditions
Previous Article in Journal
Mixed-Mode Fracture Behavior of Penta-Graphene: A Molecular Dynamics Perspective on Defect Sensitivity and Crack Evolution
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Solids
Volume 6
Issue 3
10.3390/solids6030037
solids-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Synergistic Integration of MXene Photothermal Conversion and TiO2 Radiative Cooling in Bifunctional PLA Fabrics for Adaptive Personal Thermal Management

by
Tianci Han
and
Yunjie Yin
*
Key Laboratory of Eco-Textile, Ministry of Education, College of Textile Science and Engineering, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Solids 2025, 6(3), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/solids6030037
Submission received: 28 April 2025 / Revised: 16 June 2025 / Accepted: 9 July 2025 / Published: 12 July 2025
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Polylactic acid (PLA) fabrics exhibit significant sunlight reflectivity and high emissivity within the atmospheric window, making them suitable as the foundational material for this study. This research involves the modification of one side of the fabric with hydrophilic agents and titanium dioxide (TiO2), while the opposite side is treated with MXene and subsequently coated with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to inhibit oxidation of the MXene. Through these surface modifications, a thermal management fabric based on PLA was successfully developed, capable of passively regulating temperature in response to environmental conditions and user requirements. The study discusses the optimal concentrations of TiO2 and MXene for the fabric, and characterizes and evaluates the functional surface of the PLA. Surface morphology analyses and tests indicate that the resulting functional PLA fabrics possess excellent ultraviolet (UV) resistance, favorable air permeability, high sunlight reflectivity on the TiO2-treated side, and superior photothermal conversion capabilities on the MXene-treated side. Furthermore, photothermal effect tests conducted under a light intensity of 1000 W/m2 reveal that the MXene-treated fabric exhibits a heating effect of approximately 25 °C, while the TiO2-treated side demonstrates a cooling effect exceeding 5 °C. This study developed PLA functional fabrics with heating and cooling capabilities.

Graphical Abstract

1. Introduction

Polylactic acid (PLA) fabrics possess a range of beneficial properties, such as a soft texture [1], natural luster [2], exceptional antimicrobial qualities [3], and low specific gravity [4], which correspond to the changing demands for comfort and portability in textile applications. Furthermore, PLA fabrics exhibit superior performance under diverse seasonal conditions. In hot summer environments, these fabrics efficiently absorb moisture and perspiration due to their permeability, while in cold winter settings, they offer improved thermal insulation relative to conventional fabrics [5]. Additionally, PLA fabrics provide substantial ultraviolet (UV) protection, demonstrating high reflectivity to solar radiation, thus protecting the skin from detrimental UV exposure [6].
Strategies for preparing radiative cooling materials include: (1) electrospinning technology, which can efficiently prepare micro/nanometer fiber porous structures to regulate optical properties [7]; (2) coating and printing technology, which can achieve large-area, low-cost preparation of radiative coolers [8]; (3) biomimetic and structural design, which utilizes micro/nanometer structures in nature or engineered photonic structures to optimize the emissivity of the mid-infrared atmospheric window [9]. In recent research, An-Quan Xie [10] developed biomimetic radiative cooling materials inspired by the multiscale scattering structures of silver ants and butterfly wings. This structural design strategy achieved high full-spectrum solar reflectance (>96%) and atmospheric window infrared emissivity (>90%). Jin-Zhuo Liu [11] fabricated large-area CNT thermoelectric arrays on fabric via screen printing and integrated them with radiative cooling films, enabling thermoelectric generation in self-powered wearable devices with an output voltage of 42.7 mV under ambient illumination. In the current investigation, prophylactic acid (PLA) fabric is utilized as the primary substrate. One side of the fabric was subjected to hydrophilic modification through the application of titanium dioxide (TiO2) nano finishing [12], while the opposing side was treated with MXene and subsequently coated with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) to inhibit the oxidation of the MXene [13]. Titanium dioxide, characterized as a white amorphous powder, is well regarded for its elevated refractive index and ultraviolet (UV) scattering properties, rendering it suitable for use in sunscreens and various skin protection formulations [14]. TiO2 naturally occurs in three predominant crystalline forms: anatase, rutile, and plagioclase, with anatase demonstrating superior photocatalytic activity and rutile exhibiting enhanced thermal stability [15]. Analogous to PLA fabrics, TiO2 also displays high solar reflectivity and emissivity within the atmospheric window range, which facilitates effective sunlight reflection while concurrently promoting the emission of thermal radiation from the human body, thus contributing to a cooling effect [16]. The pronounced reflectivity of TiO2 is attributed to its exceptionally high refractive index, which ranges from 2.5 to 2.7 within the visible and ultraviolet spectra [17], significantly exceeding that of other inorganic materials. This high refractive index enables TiO2 to efficiently reflect incident light and diminish energy absorption [18]. The high emissivity of TiO2 pertains to its capacity to radiate in the infrared spectrum [19]; upon heating, TiO2 effectively dissipates heat energy in the form of infrared radiation, a property that is particularly advantageous in cooling systems and specific thermal management applications [20]. The nano-TiO2 modified by KH560 exhibits distinctive characteristics resulting from the modification effects of KH560 [21]. This surface modification not only enhances the chemical stability of the material but also improves its physical properties [22]. The surface modification of TiO2 with KH560 enhances the dispersion of nanoparticles, mitigates the propensity for particle aggregation, and aids in maintaining a uniform nanoscale size distribution [23,24]. Furthermore, KH560 facilitates covalent bonding between TiO2 and organic materials, thereby improving compatibility in composite materials and augmenting their mechanical strength and durability. Additionally, MXene represents a novel class of two-dimensional materials that has garnered significant attention in materials science due to its unique properties and potential applications [25]. MXene is derived from three-dimensional materials in the MAX phase, where M denotes a transition metal [26], A represents a metallic element from the third or fourth main group (typically the element subjected to etching) [27], and X signifies either carbon or nitrogen [28]. The MAX phase material employed in this study is Ti3AlC2, and the MXene material with the structure Ti3C2Tx is obtained through hydrofluoric acid etching [29]. Following etching, numerous reactive functional groups (T) such as -F, -O, and -OH are introduced to the surface of Ti3C2 [30], which endows the MXene material with reactive activity and enhances its dispersibility and stability [31].
To achieve effective heat and moisture management in fabric, this study employed a treatment strategy that involved rendering one side of the fabric hydrophilic and the opposite side hydrophobic. This approach facilitates unidirectional moisture transfer and enhances wearer comfort [32]. Initially, the PLA fabric was subjected to cleaning with ethanol, followed by the application of a hydrophilic treatment on the hydrophobic side [33]. Subsequently, varying quantities of modified titanium dioxide (TiO2) microspheres were sprayed onto this side of the fabric to enhance its whiteness and increase its solar emissivity. TiO2 possesses properties such as sterilization, disinfection, UV resistance, and hydrophilicity, which, when applied to the fabric surface, significantly improve the cooling sensation of the fabric under elevated temperature conditions [34,35]. Thus, the incorporation of modified TiO2 microspheres on the fabric surface markedly enhances its cooling capabilities in high-temperature environments. Furthermore, this investigation sought to determine the optimal application quantity of TiO2-modified fabrics and to compare the performance characteristics of both the original and TiO2-treated fabrics [36,37]. To address the challenge of fabric heating for the human body in low-temperature conditions, this study selected MXene, a two-dimensional layered material. MXene dispersions were applied to the fabrics in varying dosages, leveraging their high specific surface area and thermal conductivity to facilitate the absorption of sunlight and its conversion into heat, thereby warming the fabric in close contact with the body. This paper discusses the preparation of MXene dispersion, the determination of the optimal dosage, and the comparative performance testing and characterization of the treated fabrics [38,39]. Lastly, given that MXene is inherently hydrophilic, a PDMS solution was formulated and sprayed onto the MXene-coated fabrics to ensure the unidirectional moisture-conducting effect [40,41,42]. PDMS is known for its excellent film-forming properties, which allow it to encapsulate the MXene while imparting hydrophobic characteristics to the fabric surface, thereby achieving the desired unidirectional moisture management effect. This experiment developed a double-sided functionalized polylactic acid (PLA) fabric, which achieved passive radiative cooling (>5 °C) through titanium dioxide (TiO2) modification and efficient photothermal conversion through MXene/polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) modification. Passive radiative cooling and photothermal conversion functions were integrated onto a single biodegradable substrate, thereby achieving intelligent thermal management based on environmental conditions.

2. Experimental Section

2.1. Materials

Polylactic acid knitted fabric (95% polylactic acid + 5% spandex) was acquired from the China Yiwu Huayue New Material Technology Co., Ltd., Tianjin, China, Titanium dioxide (rutile), Silane coupling agent KH560, acetic acid (CH3COOH), MAX material (Ti3AlC2), lithium fluorides, hydrochloric acids (12 M), Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), Polydimethylsiloxane crosslinker, isopropanol, and anhydrous ethanol were purchased from the China Shanghai Sinopharm Chemical Reagents Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China, the hydrophilic treatment agent HYDRO 300 was acquired from the China Shanghai Sangjing Chemical Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China, and the MAX material (Ti3AlC2) was acquired from the China Changchun One One Technology Co., Ltd., Changchun, China.

2.2. Modified TiO2 Finishing PLA Fabrics

In the preparation of TiO2-treated modified polylactic acid (PLA) fabrics, an initial mixture was created by combining 0.5 g of TiO2 and 2 mL of the silane coupling agent KH560 with 50 mL of deionized water. The pH of this solution was adjusted to a range of 3 to 5, followed by magnetic stirring for a duration of 2 h. Subsequently, an additional 2 mL of KH560 was incorporated into the solution, and stirring was continued for another 2 h at ambient temperature. The resulting mixture was then subjected to centrifugation, and the precipitated powder was alternately rinsed with water and anhydrous ethanol. The collected powder was subsequently dried in an oven at 120 °C for 2 h. To prepare the hydrophilic treatment agent, a mixture of HYDRO 300 and isopropanol was created in a volumetric ratio of 7:3. A volume of 0.5 mL of this hydrophilic reagent was applied to the surface of the PLA fabric, followed by the addition of 1 g of the modified TiO2 powder into 20 mL of the solution, ensuring thorough mixing. The hydrophilic-treated polylactic acid (PLA) fabric was then weighed and sprayed with modified titanium dioxide (TiO2) reagent using a spray gun at a distance of 15 cm and a pressure of 8–9 psi. After the spraying process, the fabric was dried in an oven at 70 °C for 1 h. Finally, the weight of the treated fabric was measured, and the weight gain rate was calculated to determine the optimal quantity of modified TiO2.

2.3. MXene Finishing PLA Fabrics

In the conducted experiment, hydrofluoric acid was synthesized by combining 31 mL of hydrochloric acid solution with 2 g of lithium fluoride, followed by a stirring reaction for 30 min at a temperature of 35 °C within a water bath. Subsequently, 2 g of MAX (Ti3AlC2) material was incrementally introduced, and the reaction was maintained under identical water bath conditions for a duration of 24 h. Following this, excess hydrofluoric acid was eliminated through centrifugation with water; the supernatant was discarded, and this procedure was repeated three times. Ethanol was then added to the precipitate, which was subjected to sonication in an ice water bath for 3 h to yield the MXene dispersion. Next, the TiO2-modified fabric was weighed to determine its initial mass. Subsequently, different amounts of MXene dispersion were sprayed onto the other side of the fabric at a distance of 15 cm and a pressure of 8–9 psi, and then dried in a vacuum oven at 60 °C for 15 min. The fabric was removed and weighed again to ascertain the treated mass and calculate the weight gain percentage. Following this, a PDMS solution was prepared by mixing the PDMS cross-linking agent with PDMS in a mass ratio of 10:1, and 0.5 g of this mixture was incorporated into 49.5 g of isopropanol solution to create a PDMS mixture with a concentration of 1%. Finally, 0.5 mL of the PDMS mixture was sprayed onto the MXene-treated side of the fabric using a spray gun and subsequently dried at 80 °C.

2.4. Characterization

The contact angle between the experimental samples and deionized water was measured using a static droplet contact angle meter, employing a droplet volume of approximately 5 μL at a temperature of 25 °C. The microstructural morphology of the experimental samples was examined utilizing a HITACHI SU1510 scanning electron microscope (Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan). Prior to observation, the surfaces of the samples underwent vacuum gold sputtering at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV for a duration of 90 s. The structural properties of the samples were characterized using a D2 PHASER X-ray diffractometer (Bruker AXS, Karlsruhe, Germany), employing a Cu (Kα) target with a wavelength of 0.15418 nm, a scanning range of 5°to 80°, and a scanning speed of 5° per minute. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) was conducted on the MXene-treated fabrics to ascertain the elemental distribution on the fabric surface, specifically analyzing the distribution of titanium (Ti), carbon (C), and aluminum (Al) from the MXene nanosheets. The air permeability of the fabrics was evaluated using a YG461E Permeability Meter (Ningbo Textile Instrument Factory, Ningbo, China), adhering to the test standard FZ/T 73027-2016 [43], which outlines the “Determination of fabric permeability,” and employing the constant pressure difference flow measurement method.

2.5. Special Characterization

The ultraviolet-visible-near infrared (UV-VIS-NIR) reflectance of the experimental samples was assessed utilizing a UV-VIS-NIR spectrophotometer, specifically the Lambda 950 model from the China Shanghai PerkinElmer Corporate Management Ltd., Shanghai, China, which is equipped with an integrating sphere. Additionally, the infrared (IR) reflectance and transmittance of the samples were evaluated using a Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer (NIcOLETiS10, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), also fitted with an IR integrating sphere. The IR emissivity was subsequently calculated using the following formula:
ε = 1 − ρ − τ
where ε represents the infrared emissivity, ρ denotes the infrared reflectivity, and τ signifies the infrared transmittance.
To evaluate the UV resistance of functional polylactic acid (PLA) fabrics, a YG (B) 912E textile UV tester (Wenzhou Da Rong Textile Instrument Co., Ltd., Wenzhou, China) was employed. The fabrics were subjected to natural light exposure for a duration of 10 min, during which they were positioned on an arm to simulate the effects of wear. The surface temperatures of the PLA, TiO2@PLA, and MXene@PLA fabrics were measured and documented using a thermal imaging device. The temperature variations of the fabrics were recorded over a 5-min interval from the initiation of heating under a specified light intensity.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Analysis of Functional Surface Properties of Nano-TiO2 in PLA Fabrics

Table 1 presents the weight gain rates of fabrics treated with varying amounts of modified TiO2. At lower treatment volumes, the weight gain rate of the fabric was relatively low, suggesting insufficient coverage of modified TiO2. This limited coverage likely resulted in an inadequate functional improvement of the fabric. However, as the treatment volume increased (1.5–3.0 mL), the weight gain rate improved significantly. Notably, at 2.0 mL and 2.5 mL, the weight gain rates reached 0.002804 g·cm−2 and 0.003528 g·cm−2, respectively, indicating more complete coverage of modified TiO2 and enhanced functional treatment of the fabric [44]. Based on the weight gain rate analysis, the optimal weight gain effect was achieved at a spraying volume of 2.5 mL. However, further examination of the samples revealed that, although the weight gain rate at 2.5 mL was slightly higher than that at 2.0 mL, the bonding between the modified TiO2 and the fabric was less effective. Consequently, the optimal spraying volume of modified TiO2 for this experiment was determined to be 2.0 mL.
Figure 1 presents SEM images of PLA and TiO2@PLA fabric samples at varying magnifications. Figure 1a,b illustrate the original fiber structure of PLA fabrics, while Figure 1c,d depict the fiber surface structure of TiO2-modified PLA. As shown in Figure 1a,b, the fiber surface is relatively smooth, exhibiting typical characteristics of polymer fibers [45]. The fibers are tightly aligned, with distinct lines and textures. The uniform gaps between the PLA fibers suggest that the fibers maintain good dispersion during the manufacturing process. Figure 1c,d reveal that the surface of the treated PLA fabrics is coated with TiO2 nanoparticles, forming an irregular layer. This coating may enhance the surface functionality of the fibers, such as improving UV protection and sunlight reflection.
Figure 1e displays that the XRD patterns of PLA showed several obvious diffraction peaks, especially at about 2θ = 16°, 19°, which are typical crystalline peaks of PLA, indicating that PLA has a certain degree of crystallinity [46]. Comparing the XRD images of PLA fabrics before and after treatment, it can be observed that the XRD patterns of treated PLA show diffraction peaks at the same positions, but with reduced intensity, which proves the presence of nano-TiO2. The nano TiO2 is physically cemented to the PLA fibers, thus interfering with the normal alignment of the PLA polymer chains and affecting its crystallinity. This interference may lead to a decrease in the crystallinity of PLA, which is reflected in the weakened intensity of the diffraction peaks in the XRD patterns. Meanwhile, its characteristic peaks appearing at 2θ = 27°, 36°, 41°, and 54° basically coincide with those of KH560-modified TiO2 [47]. The relative weakness of these peaks indicates that TiO2 exists as very fine particles or at a lower crystallinity.
Figure 1f presents XRD images before and after KH569 modification, highlighting structural changes resulting from KH560 treatment. The XRD pattern of TiO2 exhibits several sharp peaks at 2θ values of approximately 25°, 27°, 36°, 41°, 54°, and 62°. These peaks correspond to the characteristic diffraction patterns of rutile TiO2, indicating high crystallinity and purity. In contrast, the XRD pattern of KH560-modified TiO2 shows relatively weak and broad peaks, suggesting a reduction in crystallinity. This change is attributed to the partial disruption or disordering of the nanoparticle surface’s crystalline structure due to the surface modification effect of KH560.

3.2. Reflective and Infrared Emission Properties of PLA Fabrics After TiO2 Finishing

Figure 2a displays the infrared emissivity profiles of PLA fabrics before and after TiO2 treatment. The emissivity images reveal the infrared absorption characteristics of PLA fabrics and the changes induced by varying TiO2 concentrations. The untreated PLA fabric exhibited significant absorption peaks at specific wave numbers. With increasing TiO2 concentration, minor changes in infrared emissivity were observed, likely due to the TiO2 coating altering the fabric’s light scattering and absorption properties. At lower TiO2 treatment amounts, the emissivity curves showed a slight decrease in certain bands compared to untreated PLA. At higher treatment amounts, the changes in emissivity became more pronounced, particularly near 3000 cm−1, where emissivity decreased significantly. These findings suggest that the infrared radiation properties of the fabric are notably influenced when the TiO2 concentration reaches a certain threshold.
Personal thermal management fabrics with cooling on one side and heating on the other were prepared using PLA fabric as a substrate. Nano TiO2, with its high refractive index, exhibits strong sunlight reflectivity. Figure 2b presents the reflectivity profiles of PLA fabrics treated with varying amounts of TiO2, comparing their reflective properties to those of untreated fabrics.
Analysis of NIR spectrophotometer test results revealed that the addition of nano TiO2 enhanced fabric reflectance in several wavelength bands. However, the increase in reflectance was not proportional to the amount of TiO2 sprayed. Notably, the reflectance of PLA fabric treated with 2.5 mL of TiO2 was lower than that treated with 2.0 mL. The spectrophotometer results indicate that as the TiO2 treatment amount increased, the PLA fabric demonstrated stronger reflectance in the 200–2500 nm wavelength range. TiO2 absorbs near-infrared light at specific wavelengths, contributing to a cooling effect. Increasing the amount of modified TiO2 enhanced its scattering effect, leading to higher reflectivity and improved cooling performance. However, excessive TiO2 spraying (e.g., 2.5 mL) resulted in weak bonding with the fabric and poor fastness. Since the reflectivity of fabrics treated with 2.5 mL was comparable to that of 2.0 mL but exhibited inferior fastness, the reflectivity tests confirmed that the optimal TiO2 treatment amount was 2.0 mL.

3.3. Analysis of MXene Functional Surface Properties of PLA Fabrics

Table 2 presents the weight gain rates of fabrics treated with varying amounts of MXene. As the dosage of MXene dispersion increased, the weight gain rate of the fabrics also increased. However, the rate of increase diminished with higher spraying amounts, as a significant portion of the MXene dispersion could not be effectively deposited onto the fabric surface during the treatment process. While it is possible to use larger amounts of MXene treatment solution, the fabric surface eventually reaches a saturation point. Analysis of Table 2 reveals that the weight gain rate difference between 2.5 mL and 3.0 mL of MXene is minimal, indicating that 2.5 mL of MXene is near the saturation threshold. Therefore, this study concludes that the optimal MXene dosage is 2.5 mL.
Figure 3a reveals larger particles with small lamellar structures on their surfaces, indicating a multilayered composite structure consistent with the three-dimensional laminar characteristics of MAX materials. Figure 3b displays the typical laminar features of MXene, with uniformly distributed tiny lamellar structures that align with the properties of MXene nanosheets. These observations confirm the successful production of MXene through the etching of the aluminum layer in the MAX material. Figure 3d illustrates the surface morphology of PLA fabric treated with MXene spraying. The image demonstrates that the MXene material uniformly coats the fiber surface of the PLA fabric. While the shape and structure of the PLA fibers remain discernible after treatment, the surface becomes relatively rough due to the coverage of MXene nanolayers [48].
Figure 3e,f present different magnifications and details of the fabric after PDMS treatment, respectively. Figure 3e shows that the fiber surface is relatively rough and covered by a fine coating of PDMS. The PDMS film is highly adhesive, enabling it to bond closely with the fabric. This layer exhibits excellent hydrophobicity, making it suitable as a hydrophobic layer for thermally managed fabrics. The PDMS hydrophobic membrane can form a Janus wettability structure with the TiO2 hydrophilic surface, enabling unidirectional moisture conduction. This structure allows moisture to be transported directionally, facilitating the rapid evaporation of perspiration from the inner layer (in contact with the skin) to the outer layer of the fabric. Importantly, perspiration in the outer layer does not penetrate back into the inner layer, thereby enhancing wearer comfort.
Figure 4 presents the results of elemental analysis, demonstrating the chemical compositional changes in PLA fabrics following MXene treatment. The carbon distribution map reveals that carbon is uniformly distributed across the fabric surface, consistent with the fundamental composition of PLA polyester. The titanium distribution map indicates a dense concentration of titanium on the fabric surface, confirming the successful incorporation of MXene nanosheets into the PLA fibers. Additionally, the aluminum distribution map shows a sparse presence of aluminum, likely originating from residual aluminum in the MXene raw material or incomplete removal during MXene preparation.
The application of MXene, a two-dimensional layered material, to the PLA fabric surface significantly modifies the fabric’s microstructure and elemental composition. The presence of titanium enhances the material’s functionality, such as improving electrical conductivity and thermal stability. Meanwhile, the homogeneous distribution of carbon suggests that the basic structure of the PLA remains intact.

3.4. Thermal Management Fabric Performance Testing

Table 3 and Table 4 show the UV-resistance tests on the PLA fabrics and the UV-resistance tests on the functional PLA fabrics, respectively. As can be seen from the data in the table: the average UVA transmittance rate of untreated PLA fabric is 12.71%, and the average UVB transmittance rate is 6.81%, which indicates that the fabric itself has a certain degree of UV protection, and its average protection coefficient is 10.46, which provides the basic UV protection of the fabric. Comparing the anti-UV performance of PLA fabrics before and after treatment, it can be observed that the protection factor (UPF) of functional PLA fabrics has been greatly improved, and its transmittance of UVA and UVB is very low, which is able to isolate UV rays well and protect human skin from UV damage.
Table 5 shows the air permeability test results of PLA and functional PLA fabrics. The average air permeability of functional PLA fabrics is 480.96 mm/s, indicating that the air passes through the fabric faster in a certain period of time. Even though there is a gap relative to that of ordinary PLA fabrics, the air permeability of functional PLA fabrics compared with that of other materials such as cotton and polyester still occupies a great advantage. Functional PLA fabrics may also have characteristics such as UV protection while having high air permeability, which makes them more competitive in practical applications.
Functional treatments of TiO2 and MXene were applied to PLA fabrics, and in order to investigate whether the functional treatments would adversely affect the radiative cooling performance of PLA fabrics, this paper carried out emissivity tests on PLA fabrics and functional PLA fabrics. Figure 5a shows the infrared emissivity tests of PLA fabrics and functional PLA fabrics. Considering all wavelength ranges together, the infrared emissivity of the treated PLA fabrics varies but still maintains an overall high emissivity level. This means that although the surface properties of the material changed due to the addition of TiO2 and MXene, these changes did not fundamentally affect the radiative cooling properties of the PLA fabrics. Figure 5b,c shows the absorbance curves of PLA fabrics and functional PLA fabrics. The presence of the C-O stretching vibration peak in both PLA and functional PLA fabrics indicates the presence of ester chain segments in the molecular chain. In the figure, the yellow area represents the atmospheric window band, and the PLA fabric selected in this paper has more characteristic peaks in this band, which corroborates that it has good infrared emission properties in the atmospheric window.

3.5. Performance of Functional PLA Fabrics Under Natural Conditions

As seen in Figure 6a within the first 5 min, both textiles’ temperatures rose quickly. Nevertheless, the PLA fabric’s interior temperature increases more quickly than the TiO2-treated PLA fabrics. Because TiO2 has high reflectivity to light, its temperature growth was slowed under prolonged light exposure, which is why the PLA fabric’s temperature progressively surpassed that of the TiO2-treated PLA fabric over time.
The photothermal impact of PLA and TiO2@PLA fabrics in the presence of sunshine is depicted in Figure 6b. Following a period of exposure to 380 W/m2 of sunlight, the original fabric’s average temperature reached 32.4 °C, while the nanoTiO2-treated PLA’s average temperature was 31.6 °C, 0.6 °C lower than the original fabric’s. The cooling effect on the surface was not immediately apparent.
To verify the personal thermal management heating effect achieved by MXene modification of PLA fabrics, this study tested the heat distribution on the skin surface covered with PLA and MXene@PLA fabrics under sunlight. Figure 6c presents the photothermal effect test results of PLA and MXene@PLA fabrics under sunlight. The thermal imaging analysis reveals that the skin temperature is higher than the surface temperature of PLA fabrics under 380 W/m2 sunlight, indicating that PLA fabrics can partially block heat.

3.6. Heating Performance of Functional PLA Fabric Under Specific Light Intensity

To distinguish the effects of thermal convection from other factors, this experiment was conducted in a foam box covered with plastic wrap, as shown in Figure 7a. Additionally, the temperature differences between PLA and MXene@PLA under varying light intensities were tested, and their heating behavior was discussed, as shown in Figure 7b–d. Over time, the temperature of the PLA fabric slightly decreased, while the MXene@PLA fabric experienced a significant temperature increase within the first 50 s, rising from 28 °C to 38 °C and maintaining a higher temperature level. Under a light intensity of 600 W/m2, the surface temperature of the polylactic acid fabric slightly increased, while the MXene@PLA fabric rapidly heated up in the initial stage and stabilized at approximately 45 °C. Therefore, the temperature difference exceeded 15 °C compared to the polylactic acid fabric. At an intensity of 800 W/m2, both MXene@PLA and polylactic acid fabrics exhibited a noticeable increase in temperature. However, after 150 s, the temperature of the PLA fabric dropped significantly, while the MXene@PLA fabric maintained a higher temperature.
The temperature of MXene-treated PLA fabrics was found to be significantly higher than that of untreated PLA fabrics at all given light intensities. As time elapsed, the temperatures of both fabrics gradually stabilized. The MXene-treated PLA fabrics slowed down the rate of temperature increase after reaching higher temperatures, but maintained a relatively high temperature level, suggesting that the MXene-treated fabrics may have better thermal stability. Overall, MXene, as a 2D material, significantly enhanced the photothermal conversion efficiency of PLA fabrics, which may provide a valuable reference for the development of new efficient photothermal conversion materials, smart textiles or other thermal management applications.

3.7. Mxene Coating Friction Fastness and Wash Fastness

Table 6 presents the test data for the friction fastness and wash fastness of the MXene coating. As can be clearly seen from the figure, the fastness properties of the coated samples are significantly improved compared to those of the unmodified MXene. The primary reason for this improvement is that the PDMS coating acts as a barrier to oxygen, inhibiting the oxidation of MXene, thereby enhancing the friction fastness of the MXene coating to a certain extent. Compared to the AgNW/MXene/PDMS coating [40], the dry friction fastness, wet friction fastness, and color fastness have all improved by one grade. Compared to the MXene/PDMS/Fe3O4 coating, the dry friction fastness and wet friction fastness have also improved to some extent. This demonstrates that our experimental research has, to a certain extent, improved the Mxene coating compared to similar types.

4. Conclusions

This study presents the successful development of an innovative thermal management fabric utilizing polylactic acid (PLA) through surface modification techniques. The design strategy involved the application of TiO2 and MXene nanoparticles to distinct surfaces of the same fabric, thereby facilitating a dual functionality of heating on one side and cooling on the opposite side. The incorporation of a KH560 modified titanium dioxide nanocoating significantly enhanced the light reflectance of the fabric, resulting in a temperature reduction on that side. Conversely, the MXene coating elevated the fabric’s temperature due to its superior photothermal conversion capabilities. Experimental procedures involved the spray-coating of titanium dioxide and MXene nanoparticles onto PLA-based fabrics to achieve the desired dual-sided heterofunctional effect. Notably, the application of 2.0 mL of titanium dioxide nanoparticles resulted in a reflectance of 92%, which remained consistently high, indicating a robust adhesion to the fabric. This demonstrates the fabric’s exceptional light reflectance across a broad spectral range of 250 to 2500 nm, positioning it as a viable cooling material. Under sunlight exposure with an intensity of 380 W/m2, a temperature differential of 6.1 °C was observed between the MXene-treated fabrics and the untreated counterparts, a difference perceptible to the human touch. Furthermore, as light intensity increased to 400, 600, and 800 W/m2, the temperature differential between the MXene-treated and original fabrics became more pronounced, highlighting the enhanced photothermal performance with increasing light intensity. The research findings confirm that functionally treated PLA fabrics exhibit outstanding photothermal properties, making them suitable for applications in outdoor work and sports, medical care, aerospace and the military, as well as daily wear and home use. This PLA-based thermal management fabric, through multifunctional surface modification, demonstrates significant application potential across multiple fields, offering innovative solutions for temperature regulation and protective needs in various scenarios.

Author Contributions

Original draft writing, Methodology, Review and editing, Formal analysis, T.H.; Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Project administration, Y.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (21975107).

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author (privacy).

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Triamnak, N.; Suttiruengwong, S.; Vittayakorn, N.; Girdthep, S.; Khankrua, R. The properties investigations of PLA/TiO2 and PLA/doped-TiO2 composites films. Polym.-Plast. Technol. Mater. 2023, 62, 1576–1586. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Kandemir, A.; Longana, M.L.; Panzera, T.H.; del Pino, G.G.; Hamerton, I.; Eichhorn, S.J. Natural Fibres as a Sustainable Reinforcement Constituent in Aligned Discontinuous Polymer Composites Produced by the HiPerDiF Method. Materials 2021, 14, 1885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Shi, Y.; Wang, Z.; Liu, C.; Wang, H.; Guo, J.; Fu, L.; Feng, Y.; Wang, L.; Yang, F.; Liu, M. Engineering titanium carbide ultra-thin nanosheets for enhanced fire safety of intumescent flame retardant polylactic acid. Compos. Part B Eng. 2022, 236, 109792. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Zhao, X.; Li, K.; Wang, Y.; Tekinalp, H.; Richard, A.; Webb, E.; Ozcan, S. Bio-treatment of poplar via amino acid for interface control in biocomposites. Compos. Part B Eng. 2020, 199, 108276. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Standau, T.; Castellón, S.M.; Delavoie, A.; Bonten, C.; Altstädt, V. Effects of chemical modifications on the rheological and the expansion behavior of polylactide (PLA) in foam extrusion. e-Polymers 2019, 19, 297–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Duan, Y.; Gu, Y.; Yang, W.; Xu, P.; Huang, Y.; Ma, P. Enhanced EMI shielding and mechanical stability via deformable MXene-rNGO conductive networks in superelastic PDMS composite. Compos. Part B Eng. 2025, 295, 112198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Cheng, N.; Miao, D.; Wang, C.; Lin, Y.; Babar, A.A.; Wang, X.; Wang, Z.; Yu, J.; Ding, B. Nanosphere-Structured Hierarchically Porous PVDF-HFP Fabric for Passive Daytime Radiative Cooling via One-Step Water Vapor-Induced Phase Separation. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 460, 141581. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Pakdel, E.; Wang, X. Thermoregulating textiles and fibrous materials for passive radiative cooling functionality. Mater. Des. 2023, 231, 112006. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Xiang, B.; Zhang, R.; Zeng, X.; Luo, Y.; Luo, Z. An Easy-to-Prepare Flexible Dual-Mode Fiber Membrane for Daytime Outdoor Thermal Management. Adv. Fiber Mater. 2022, 4, 1058–1068. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Xie, A.-Q.; Qiu, H.; Jiang, W.; Wang, Y.; Niu, S.; Zhang, K.-Q.; Ho, G.W.; Wang, X.-Q. Recent Advances in Spectrally Selective Daytime Radiative Cooling Materials. Nano-Micro Lett. 2025, 17, 264. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Liu, J.-Z.; Jiang, W.; Zhuo, S.; Rong, Y.; Li, Y.-Y.; Lu, H.; Hu, J.; Wang, X.-Q.; Chen, W.; Liao, L.-S.; et al. Large-area radiation-modulated thermoelectric fabrics for high-performance thermal management and electricity generation. Sci. Adv. 2025, 11, eadr2158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Javed, F.; Javed, S.; Mujahid, M.; Inam, F.U.; Bhatti, A.S. Modified optical characteristics of TiO2/Au/TiO2 thin composite films. Ceram. Int. 2019, 5, 22336–22343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Yuan, X.; Wang, W.; Du, C.; Kang, Q.; Mao, Z.; Chen, S. A novel noise-reducing and anti-corrosion polyurethane elastomer coating material modified by MXene/porous TiO2. Surf. Interfaces 2024, 48, 104256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Jin, M.; Zhang, X.; Nishimoto, S.; Liu, Z.; Tryk, D.A.; Emeline, A.V.; Murakami, T.; Fujishima, A. Light-Stimulated Composition Conversion in TiO2-Based Nanofibers. J. Phys. Chem. C 2006, 111, 658–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Furube, A.; Du, L.; Hara, K.; Katoh, R.; Tachiya, M. Ultrafast Plasmon-Induced Electron Transfer from Gold Nanodots into TiO2 Nanoparticles. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 14852–14853. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Jin, C.; Liu, B.; Lei, Z.; Sun, J. Structure and photoluminescence of the TiO2 films grown by atomic layer deposition using tetrakis-dimethylamino titanium and ozone. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2015, 10, 95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Stevanovic, A.; Yates, J.T. Electron Hopping through TiO2 Powder: A Study by Photoluminescence Spectroscopy. J. Phys. Chem. C 2013, 117, 24189–24195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Ola, O.; Maroto-Valer, M.M. Review of material design and reactor engineering on TiO2 photocatalysis for CO2 reduction. J. Photochem. Photobiol. C Photochem. Rev. 2015, 24, 16–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Liu, L.; Xue, Z.; Gao, T.; Zhao, Q.; Sun, Y.; Wu, Y. Photocatalytic degradation performance of Ag-modified flexible TiO2 nanofiber film. Opt. Mater. 2025, 160, 116720. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Tahir, M. Synergistic effect in MMT-dispersed Au/TiO2 monolithic nanocatalyst for plasmon-absorption and metallic interband transitions dynamic CO2 photo-reduction to CO. Appl. Catal. B Environ. Energy 2017, 219, 329–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Zhang, M.; Lyu, J.; Zuo, Y.; Li, X.; Li, P. Effect of KH560 concentration on adhesion between silicate modified poplar and waterborne varnish. Prog. Org. Coat. 2022, 174, 107267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Jebali, S.; Mejri, C.; Albouchi, W.; Meftah, M.; Oueslati, A.; Oueslati, W. Uncovering the Possibilities of Ceramic Ba(1−x)CoxTiO3 Nanocrystals: Heightened Electrical and Dielectric Attributes. Solids 2024, 5, 460–484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Zhao, K.; Guo, Z.; Wang, J.; Xie, H. Phase change n-Octadecane microencapsulated in titanium dioxide nanoparticle-doped polymer for photothermal conversion and photocatalysis. Sol. Energy 2023, 254, 73–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Gladkikh, S.N.; Loginova, S.E.; Gerasimova, L.G.; Shchukina, E.S. The Effect of Titanium Dioxide on Heat Stability of Sealants. Polym. Sci. Ser. D 2020, 3, 136–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Qu, L.; Bei, G.; Nijemeisland, M.; Cao, D.; van der Zwaag, S.; Sloof, W.G. Point contact abrasive wear behavior of MAX phase materials. Ceram. Int. 2020, 46, 1722–1729. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Miloserdov, P.A.; Gorshkov, V.A.; Kovalev, I.D.; Kovalev, D.Y. High-Temperature Synthesis of Cast Materials Based on Nb2AlC MAX Phase. Ceram. Int. 2019, 45, 2689–2691. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Zuena, M.; Buemi, L.P.; Stringari, L.; Legnaioli, S.; Lorenzetti, G.; Palleschi, V.; Nodari, L.; Tomasin, P. An integrated diagnostic approach to Max Ernst’s painting materials in his Attirement of the Bride. J. Cult. Herit. 2020, 43, 329–337. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Lakhnik, A.M.; Kirian, I.M.; Rud, A.D. The Mg/MAX-phase composite for hydrogen storage. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2021, 47, 7274–7280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Liu, J.; Lu, W.; Lu, X.; Zhang, L.; Dong, H.; Li, Y. Versatile Ti3C2Tx MXene for free-radical scavenging. Nano Res. 2021, 15, 2558–2566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Liu, P.; Liu, H.; Zhang, T.; Chen, L.; Guo, W.; Gu, T.; Yu, F.; Liu, Y.; Wang, G. Ti3C2Tx quantum dot-modified Ti3C2Tx nanosheets freestanding films for flexible solid-state pseudocapacitors. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 477, 146913. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Qiang, T.; Qi, X.; Gao, H.; Qiang, H.; Wang, S.; Hu, L.; Hu, N. UV-shielding, flexible and enhanced thermal-conductive polylactide composites modified with single-layered, large-sized MXene nano-sheets. Polym. Bull. 2024, 81, 12243–12265. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Li, D.; Ye, L.; Liu, H.; Wei, Q.; Zhang, X.; Zheng, Z.; Li, Z.; Lu, S. Flexible and transparent polylactic acid/hydrophobically modified nanobagasse cellulose/tannic acid/MXene films with highly efficient ultraviolet shielding. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2024, 251, 110550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Gao, Y.; Ma, X.; Zhang, M.; Xu, H.; Xu, P.; Ding, Y. Sandwich structured PLA fabrics with high electromagnetic interference shielding and low reflection characteristics. Mater. Lett. 2024, 382, 137871. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Basavarajappa, P.S.; Patil, S.B.; Ganganagappa, N.; Reddy, K.R.; Raghu, A.V.; Reddy, C.V. Recent progress in metal-doped TiO2, non-metal doped/codoped TiO2 and TiO2 nanostructured hybrids for enhanced photocatalysis. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2020, 45, 7764–7778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Paulsone, P.; Pervenecka, J.; Zarins, E.; Kokars, V.; Vembris, A. Optical and Amplified Spontaneous Emission Properties of 4H-Pyran-4-Ylidene-2-Cyanoacetate Fragment Containing 2-Cyanoacetic Acid Derivative in PVK, PSU, or PS Matrix. Solids 2024, 5, 520–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Wu, J.-M.; Xing, H. Facet-dependent decoration of TiO2 mesocrystals on TiO2 microcrystals for enhanced photoactivity. Nanotechnology 2019, 31, 025604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Kumari, M.L.A.; Devi, L.G.; Maia, G.; Chen, T.-W.; Al-Zaqri, N.; Ali, M.A. Mechanochemical synthesis of ternary heterojunctions TiO2(A)/TiO2(R)/ZnO and TiO2(A)/TiO2(R)/SnO2 for effective charge separation in semiconductor photocatalysis: A comparative study. Environ. Res. 2022, 203, 111841. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Nidhi; Tyagi, N.; Bhardwaj, V.; Moka, S.; Singh, M.K.; Khanuja, M.; Sharma, G. An overview on synthesis of MXene and MXene based nanocomposites for supercapacitors. Mater. Today Commun. 2024, 41, 110223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Malaki, M.; Maleki, A.; Varma, R.S. MXenes and ultrasonication. J. Mater. Chem. A 2019, 7, 10843–10857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Bian, X.; Yang, Z.; Zhang, T.; Yu, J.; Xu, G.; Chen, A.; He, Q.; Pan, J. Multifunctional Flexible AgNW/MXene/PDMS Composite Films for Efficient Electromagnetic Interference Shielding and Strain Sensing. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2023, 15, 41906–41915. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Bian, F.; Huang, R.; Li, X.; Hu, J.; Lin, S. Facile Construction of Chestnut-Like Structural Fireproof PDMS/Mxene@BN for Advanced Thermal Management and Electromagnetic Shielding Applications. Adv. Sci. 2024, 11, e2307482. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  42. Fang, M.; Li, Q.; Yang, D.; Zhou, B.; Feng, Y.; Liu, C. Synergistic light-to-heat conversion effect of MXene-based transparent film with insulating PDMS/Fe3O4 coating. Compos. Part A Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2023, 174, 107745. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. FZ/T 73027-2016; Determination of the Air Permeability of Fabrics. China Textile Press: Beijing, China, 2016.
  44. Tong, Y.; Fang, S.; Wang, C.; Hu, Y.H. A unique black TiO2 created from CO-induced oxidation of defect-rich TiO2. J. Phys. Chem. Solids 2021, 154, 110053. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Jin, T.Z.; Fan, X.; Mukhopadhyay, S. Antimicrobial effects of pulsed light activated TiO2-Polylactic acid film. Heliyon 2024, 10, e38891. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Graupner, N.; Müssig, J. Cellulose Fiber-Reinforced PLA versus PP. Int. J. Polym. Sci. 2017, 2017, 6059183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Zhang, C.; Zhou, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Zhao, S.; Fang, J.; Sheng, X.; Zhang, T.; Zhang, H. Double-Shelled TiO2 Hollow Spheres Assembled with TiO2 Nanosheets. Chem.-A Eur. J. 2017, 23, 4336–4343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Dall’Agnese, Y.; Rozier, P.; Taberna, P.-L.; Gogotsi, Y.; Simon, P. Capacitance of two-dimensional titanium carbide (MXene) and MXene/carbon nanotube composites in organic electrolytes. J. Power Sources 2016, 306, 510–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Solids 06 00037 g001
Figure 1. SEM images of fabric samples with different magnifications: (a) PLA original fabric surface (b) PLA original fiber surface (c) TiO2-modified PLA fabric surface (d) TiO2-modified PLA fiber surface (e) XRD images before and after titanium dioxide modification (f) XRD images before and after KH569 modification.
Figure 1. SEM images of fabric samples with different magnifications: (a) PLA original fabric surface (b) PLA original fiber surface (c) TiO2-modified PLA fabric surface (d) TiO2-modified PLA fiber surface (e) XRD images before and after titanium dioxide modification (f) XRD images before and after KH569 modification.
Solids 06 00037 g001
Solids 06 00037 g002
Figure 2. (a) Infrared emissivity of PLA fabrics before and after treatment (b) Reflectance images of PLA fabrics with different TiO2 treatments.
Figure 2. (a) Infrared emissivity of PLA fabrics before and after treatment (b) Reflectance images of PLA fabrics with different TiO2 treatments.
Solids 06 00037 g002
Solids 06 00037 g003
Figure 3. (a) MAX scanning electron microscope image (b) MXene scanning electron microscope image (c) MXene@PLA fabric surface (d) MXene@PLA fiber surface (e,f) Surface morphology of MXene@PLA fabrics after PDMS treatment.
Figure 3. (a) MAX scanning electron microscope image (b) MXene scanning electron microscope image (c) MXene@PLA fabric surface (d) MXene@PLA fiber surface (e,f) Surface morphology of MXene@PLA fabrics after PDMS treatment.
Solids 06 00037 g003
Solids 06 00037 g004
Figure 4. MXene@PLA fabric surface elemental analysis results.
Figure 4. MXene@PLA fabric surface elemental analysis results.
Solids 06 00037 g004
Solids 06 00037 g005
Figure 5. (a) Infrared emission properties of PLA fabrics and functional PLA fabrics (b) PLA fabric IR absorbance (c) Functional PLA fabric IR absorbance.
Figure 5. (a) Infrared emission properties of PLA fabrics and functional PLA fabrics (b) PLA fabric IR absorbance (c) Functional PLA fabric IR absorbance.
Solids 06 00037 g005
Solids 06 00037 g006
Figure 6. (a) Cooling effect of TiO2@PLA under 1000 W/m2 light intensity (b) Photothermal effect of PLA and TiO2@PLA fabrics under sunlight (c) Photothermal effect of PLA and MXene@PLA fabrics under sunlight.
Figure 6. (a) Cooling effect of TiO2@PLA under 1000 W/m2 light intensity (b) Photothermal effect of PLA and TiO2@PLA fabrics under sunlight (c) Photothermal effect of PLA and MXene@PLA fabrics under sunlight.
Solids 06 00037 g006
Solids 06 00037 g007
Figure 7. (a) Experimental diagram of prevention of heat convection and heat conduction (b) Photothermal performance of PLA and MXene@PLA fabrics under 400 W/m2 light intensity (c) Photothermal performance of PLA and MXene@PLA fabrics under 600 W/m2 light intensity (d) Photothermal performance of PLA and MXene@PLA fabrics under 800 W/m2 light intensity.
Figure 7. (a) Experimental diagram of prevention of heat convection and heat conduction (b) Photothermal performance of PLA and MXene@PLA fabrics under 400 W/m2 light intensity (c) Photothermal performance of PLA and MXene@PLA fabrics under 600 W/m2 light intensity (d) Photothermal performance of PLA and MXene@PLA fabrics under 800 W/m2 light intensity.
Solids 06 00037 g007
Table 1. Fabric weight gain rate with different modified TiO2 spraying amount.
Table 1. Fabric weight gain rate with different modified TiO2 spraying amount.
Spray Volume/mLm1/gm2/gWeight Gain Rate/(g·cm−2)
0.50.77670.79340.000668
1.00.79800.82720.001168
1.50.80160.86090.002372
2.00.83760.90770.002804
2.50.85290.94110.003528
3.00.79210.87630.003368
Table 2. Fabric weight gain rates for different MXene spraying amounts.
Table 2. Fabric weight gain rates for different MXene spraying amounts.
Spray Volume/mLm1/gm2/gWeight Gain Rate/(g·cm−2)
0.50.82030.82090.000024
1.00.77950.78180.000092
1.50.81760.82040.000112
2.00.79390.79780.000156
2.50.78040.78450.000164
3.00.79650.80070.000168
Table 3. PLA UV resistance test.
Table 3. PLA UV resistance test.
ConsignmentUVA Transmittance (%)UVB Transmittance (%)Protection Factor (UPF)
115.438.549.45
29.153.9411.63
313.567.9610.29
average value12.716.8110.46
Table 4. Functional PLA UV resistance test.
Table 4. Functional PLA UV resistance test.
ConsignmentUVA Transmittance (%)UVB Transmittance (%)Protection Factor (UPF)
10.730.27188.51
20.780.59169.18
30.750.53192.11
average value0.750.46183.27
Table 5. Air permeability testing of PLA and functional PLA fabrics.
Table 5. Air permeability testing of PLA and functional PLA fabrics.
ConsignmentPLA (mm/s)Function PLA (mm/s)
1804.93487.95
2820.46465.61
3803.76489.32
average value809.72480.96
Table 6. Mxene coating friction fastness and wash fastness.
Table 6. Mxene coating friction fastness and wash fastness.
Dry Friction
Fastness/(Grade)		Wet Friction
Fastness/(Grade)		Colorfastness to
Fading/(Grade)		Color
Fastness/(Grade)
MXene coating43–44–55
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Han, T.; Yin, Y. Synergistic Integration of MXene Photothermal Conversion and TiO2 Radiative Cooling in Bifunctional PLA Fabrics for Adaptive Personal Thermal Management. Solids 2025, 6, 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/solids6030037

AMA Style

Han T, Yin Y. Synergistic Integration of MXene Photothermal Conversion and TiO2 Radiative Cooling in Bifunctional PLA Fabrics for Adaptive Personal Thermal Management. Solids. 2025; 6(3):37. https://doi.org/10.3390/solids6030037

Chicago/Turabian Style

Han, Tianci, and Yunjie Yin. 2025. "Synergistic Integration of MXene Photothermal Conversion and TiO2 Radiative Cooling in Bifunctional PLA Fabrics for Adaptive Personal Thermal Management" Solids 6, no. 3: 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/solids6030037

APA Style

Han, T., & Yin, Y. (2025). Synergistic Integration of MXene Photothermal Conversion and TiO2 Radiative Cooling in Bifunctional PLA Fabrics for Adaptive Personal Thermal Management. Solids, 6(3), 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/solids6030037

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop