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Article

Participant Perceptions and Destination Image: Cognitive and Affective Dimensions in Local Sports Contexts

by
Christina Avloniti
1,
Georgia Yfantidou
1,*,
Alkistis Papaioannou
2,
Charilaos Kouthouris
3 and
George Costa
1
1
Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, Democritus University of Thrace, 69100 Komotini, Greece
2
School of Social Sciences, Hellenic Open University, 26335 Patras, Greece
3
Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, University of Thessaly, 42100 Karies, Greece
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Tour. Hosp. 2025, 6(2), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020120
Submission received: 5 May 2025 / Revised: 1 June 2025 / Accepted: 13 June 2025 / Published: 18 June 2025
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Exploring the cognitive and affective image dimensions involved in the formation of attractive sports destinations is essential to understand how sports activities influence participants’ experiences. This study explores how municipal sports programs and small-scale events shape both the cognitive and affective image of a destination. The research was conducted among 456 adult participants engaged in public sports events and recreation programs in various municipalities across Attica, Greece. Participation was voluntary and based on an open public call. The questionnaire was adapted from (a) scale, which examines the influence of a sports event image on a destination image—it included 17 items measuring the cognitive image destination grouped into four factors: (1) environment, (2) experiences, (3) attractions, and (4) entertainment–infrastructure, as well as 5 items assessing one factor of affective image destination—and (b) a scale for the intention to participate in sports events and exercise programs. The findings provide insights into how community-level sports initiatives contribute to form a favorable destination image, not only through tangible elements like facilities and environment but also through emotional engagement and social connectivity. These results can inform the development of more targeted and impactful local sports programs that enhance participant’s satisfaction and foster long-term community involvement.

1. Introduction

A particular theory of tourism that Richards examines in his work “Understanding tourism: a critical introduction” (Richards, 2011) focuses on the perception of tourism as a social and cultural phenomenon. He stresses that tourism is not only limited to economic activity but also provides a platform for cultural exchange. The image of a destination in the context of local sports activities influences both the cognitive and affective perceptions of visitors and constitutes a critical factor for tourism development (Reyes & Dael, 2023; Matniyozov et al., 2024). Recent studies have shown that participation in sports events and programs not only enhances physical and mental well-being but also shapes a comprehensive and multidimensional destination image. This, in turn, affects tourists’ future intention to revisit and their attachment to the specific location (Luvsandavaajav et al., 2022; Huete-Alcocer & Ruiz, 2019).
From a cognitive perspective, the information gathered through the identification and evaluation of local infrastructure (including all physical and technical facilities such as transportation networks, sports venues, cultural and recreational centers, as well as the general environment, like clean and orderly public spaces), organizational capacity (the destination’s ability to effectively organize and manage its activities, supported by the quality of its human resources), and provided services (referring to the quality, availability, and efficiency of services offered to visitors, such as information centers, tourist services, hospitality, and support during the visit) contributes to the formation of a positive destination image (Reyes & Dael, 2023; Matniyozov et al., 2024). Furthermore, a detailed analysis of the cognitive dimension reveals that the characteristics of sports activities, such as facility quality and innovation in services, shape visitors’ various cognitive perceptions of a destination—elements considered essential for unlocking the tourism potential of a region (Reyes & Dael, 2023; Luvsandavaajav et al., 2022).
Equally important is the affective dimension of a destination’s image. The emotions triggered by sports experiences enhance the emotional connection visitors feel towards a place and increase their intention to revisit (López-Sanz et al., 2021). Several studies examining the interaction between the sports event environment and visitor attitudes have identified the role of emotional responses as a mediating variable between destination image and behavioral intentions, such as repeat visits and word-of-mouth promotion (Stylidis, 2020). It has also been demonstrated that incorporating local social and cultural elements into sports activities amplifies positive emotional reactions, contributing to the development of an appealing overall destination image (Huete-Alcocer & Ruiz, 2019).
This research framework aims to identify and analyze the cognitive and affective mechanisms through which local sports activities shape the perception of a destination and influence visitors’ intentions to return. In addition, it offers innovative and practical recommendations to improve tourism experience and enhance the competitiveness of destinations through targeted marketing and development strategies.

2. Literature Review

Cognitive and Affective Dimensions

The study of cognitive and affective dimensions related to the destination image of municipal sports programs and small-scale events is essential for understanding their impact on participants. Moreover, in terms of tourists’/participants’ pre-visit perceptions and evaluations, the perceived destination image can be defined as a combination of cognitive and affective assessments (Guo & Pesonen, 2022; Yu et al., 2024). The concept of destination image refers to the impressions and information that tourists retain, which influence their future behaviors (Lai et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2024; Jantori, 2023). According to Sharma and Nayak (2020), destination image plays a crucial role in shaping tourists’ intentions to visit a place and recommend it to others. Similarly, Xia and Xu (2024) and Zhang et al. (2020) highlighted how perceptions of event images affect behavioral intentions, particularly in the context of sports. Destination image in the context of sports tourism is influenced by various cognitive factors, especially during the planning and pursuit of tourism experiences. These dimensions—environment, experiences, attractions, and recreational infrastructure—are linked to sports events, which, regardless of size, shape perceptions of a destination.
The “environment” factor refers to the location and atmosphere of the destination. Earlier research has established that sustainable initiatives—particularly those focused on environmental aspects—have a notable influence on both brand image and the image of tourism destinations (Jung et al., 2020; Kaplanidou, 2006; Kumar et al., 2018; Wang & Butkouskaya, 2023). D. Liu and Gratton (2010) emphasize the multidimensional nature of destination image, noting how major events like the Shanghai Grand Prix can shape urban image. Similarly, Setyaningtyas et al. (2021) highlight that the quality of sports events significantly affects destination image and return visit intentions.
“Experiences” gained through sports participation are equally critical. Hemmonsbey and Tichaawa (2020) argue that sports tourists are motivated by both athletic activities and cultural engagement. Huang et al. (2015) support the idea that enriched experiences influence satisfaction and revisit intentions.
“Attractions” also play a key role. Nafis and Sutrisno (2019) and Min et al. (2023) found that tourist satisfaction is strongly linked to available attractions and recreational quality, which foster emotional bonds and repeat visits.
“Recreational infrastructure” that is further supported by the image concept, which includes the destination’s appeal and ambiance, is essential for tourist satisfaction and repeat visitation (S. Kim et al., 2019; Yu et al., 2024), as well as significantly impacts tourists’ willingness to attend sport events (Stylidis, 2020). D. Liu (2013) asserts that infrastructure directly impacts destination image, while Nadeau et al. (2011) show that large-scale event image is shaped by broader national perceptions.
In addition to cognitive aspects, the affective dimensions of participation in sports programs are equally important. Emotional engagement and participant commitment significantly influence the overall experience. Pappa and Koliopoulos (2023) suggest that activity planners should consider emotional factors to create engaging programs. Tzifopoulos (2022) supports this by linking emotional involvement to enhanced satisfaction.
Furthermore, affective engagement is reinforced through social relationships. Additionally, the affective image involves emotions such as pleasure, excitement, and relaxation, which profoundly influence attitudes. Positive feelings toward a destination lead to more favorable orientations and higher probabilities of revisits (Yu et al., 2024). Apostopoulou and Giovazolias (2021) highlight the therapeutic alliance’s role in emotional connection, boosting self-esteem and social competence. Lachanou (2019) emphasizes the role of emotional intelligence in promoting well-being and understanding participant responses.
Socio-cultural elements also influence participation. Social image, which pertains to the perceived social status and prestige associated with visiting a destination, also contributes to forming positive attitudes. For example, tourists are more likely to develop positive attitudes if they believe others will value their decision to visit a particular place (Yu et al., 2024). Touloumakou et al. (2022) underscore the importance of social support and interaction during events. Emotional identification with groups or communities enhances engagement and promotes ongoing participation.
Moreover, recent studies have highlighted new dimensions that contribute to enhancing the destination image. Specifically, Koudounas (2022) examines the role of small-scale sports events in the sustainable development of sports tourism, emphasizing that the integration of sustainable practices and the appropriate formulation of policies contribute to the creation of a positive and enduring quality image of a destination. This study provides recent evidence on how small-scale events can act as a driver of development not only at the environmental level but also in social and economic terms.
At the same time, Dimitriou et al. (2021) focus on the impact of local sports events on the cognitive parameters of tourists, noting that the experiences gained through participation in such events enhance both the cognitive assessment of local infrastructure and the emotional connection to the destination. Their findings underscore that a positive perception of local sports activities is linked to visitors’ intention to return, thereby contributing to the long-term development of a destination’s tourism potential.
Tsekouropoulos et al. (2022) found that local sports initiatives significantly influence both the cognitive and emotional aspects of a destination’s image. Positive indicators—such as residents’ attitudes toward sports events and the resulting economic benefits—contribute to a well-structured cognitive image of the destination through the evaluation of local infrastructure and services. Furthermore, sports events can enhance visitors’ emotional responses by fostering a pleasant and cohesive environment, which may increase experiential satisfaction and the likelihood of repeat visits. Their research demonstrates that local sports activities function as a catalyst for a comprehensive destination image, in which cognitive elements are combined with emotional influences to promote sustainable development and innovation in the tourism sector.
Finally, Papadimitriou et al. (2023) analyze the marketing strategies implemented in sports destinations through local events. This research emphasizes the importance of communication and the promotion of local cultural heritage alongside sports activities in strengthening destination image. The proposed marketing strategies contribute not only to attracting new tourists but also to maintaining satisfaction and encouraging repeat visits among existing ones.
The theoretical foundation for understanding local citizens’ perceptions of sports activities in tourism locations is critical for developing a positive destination image. As highlighted in the literature, local sports activities contribute to the destination image through both cognitive and affective dimensions. These parameters significantly shape the perceptions and responses of both residents and visitors (Trail & McCullough, 2019).
Citizen participation in local sports initiatives serves not only as a means of promoting health but also as an opportunity to strengthen local identity and social cohesion. Such participation can lead to positive perceptions of local infrastructure and services, enhancing both individual and collective satisfaction (Karahüseyinoğlu, 2019). When citizens actively engage in sports events, their experiences have a meaningful impact on the destination image and may produce long-term effects on tourism development (Txi et al., 2021).
Research shows that local citizens who participate in sports activities develop a stronger emotional connection with their locality. This connection can enhance social cohesion and local pride, as sports promote social interaction and solidarity (J. Kim et al., 2021). Specifically, participation in sport events offers citizens a unique opportunity to experience values such as cooperation and social engagement, which in turn influence their perceptions of the area (Knee et al., 2024).
Furthermore, community-oriented activities strengthen the sense of belonging, which is positively influenced by the organization and management of such events (Şentürk, 2019). Sports events can serve as platforms for cultivating local culture and traditions, enhancing residents’ positive attitudes toward sports, and supporting tourism development (Koçak, 2019). Finally, the opportunities offered by sport to invest in sustainability and promote the local economy are of vital importance. The sports landscape is a key driver of tourism promotion, as it can lead to infrastructure development that benefits both residents and visitors (Ochieng et al., 2020). Local citizens’ views on sports activities reflect the cognitive and affective dimensions that form the destination image. These perceptions directly affect not only their individual experiences but also the broader development of the region’s tourism image.
In conclusion, the destination image of municipal sports programs and small-scale events is shaped by both cognitive and affective elements. A thorough understanding of these dimensions can inform the development of more effective and satisfying sports initiatives that encourage continued involvement. These theories have led us to investigate the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1.
There is a positive correlation between the cognitive and affective image of the destination.
Hypothesis 2.
There is a positive correlation between the cognitive image of the destination and the intention to participate in the future or to continue participating in sports events or exercise programs.
Hypothesis 3.
There is a positive correlation between the affective image of the destination and the intention to participate in the future or to continue participating in sports events or exercise programs.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Participants

Following a public invitation, this study recruited participants enrolled in municipal sports events and exercise–recreational programs across various municipalities in the Attica region of Greece. Participation was voluntary, and individuals were informed through an open call. The sample size was determined in proportion to the population of participants involved in the relevant programs and events. A total of 456 adults (N = 456) actively participated in these municipal sports events and exercise–recreation programs and took part in this study.

3.2. Instruments

The questionnaire used in this study was based on Kaplanidou’s (2006) scale, which evaluates the impact of sports event images on destination images. The adapted instrument consisted of seventeen items assessing the cognitive image destination and five items evaluating the affective image destination. The scale of Schiffman and Kanuk (2007) was also used, as translated in Balaska’s (2013) doctoral dissertation, to capture the intention to participate in municipal sports events and exercise–recreation programs, which had three questions.

3.3. Procedures

Approval was first obtained from the relevant municipal authorities. Participant recruitment occurred during scheduled program sessions between February 2022 and April 2024. The questionnaires were distributed and collected on-site during the delivery of recreational sports activities. Additionally, some participants opted to complete the questionnaire online. In these cases, they voluntarily provided their email addresses and received a personalized link to the questionnaire via Google Forms.

3.4. Data Analysis

The collected data were analyzed using IBM SPSS Statistics (version 29). Descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages) were used to summarize the demographic characteristics of the participants and the distribution of responses. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted to confirm the factor structure of the questionnaire based on the original dimensions proposed by Kaplanidou (2006) and Schiffman and Kanuk (2007). Cronbach’s alpha was used to assess the internal consistency of the scales. Correlation and multiple analysis of variance tests were also performed to explore the relationships between cognitive and affective dimensions of destination image and intention to participate in sports events and exercise programs.

4. Results

4.1. Demographics

This study involved 456 adults participating in municipal exercise programs in the Attica region. Three participants from outside Attica were excluded from the analysis. Most of the sample were women (75.2%, N = 343), while 24.3% (N = 111) were men, and 0.4% (n = 2) did not answer the gender question.
Age: Most participants (56.8%) were aged 40–59 years, 23.7% were aged 60 and above, and 19.1% were aged 17–39 years.
Marital Status: Most participants were married (61.2%), with 16.4% being single, 11.2% being divorced, and 5.7% being widowed.
Education: The largest proportion of participants (38.4%) had completed higher or technical education, while 22.1% had completed high school and 19.1% held a postgraduate degree.
Employment: A total of 24.3% were private sector employees, 23.5% were public sector employees, and 16.7% were retirees.
Income: A total of 47.6% of participants reported an annual household income between EUR 20,000 and EUR 60,000, while 47.4% reported an income below EUR 20,000.

4.2. Participation Information

A total of 51.1% of participants exercised 3–5 times per week, 27% exercised 1–2 times per week, and 16% exercised nearly every day.
The most popular activities were pilates (34.4%), swimming (33.6%), resistance training (27.2%), and aerobic exercise (20.8%).
The majority (48.2%) had been participating for over 4 years, while 24.8% had been exercising for less than a year.

4.3. Reliability

The overall reliability analysis using Cronbach’s alpha for all dimensions of the questionnaire yielded a very satisfactory value of 0.924.
All scales were reliable for measuring the variables under investigation. Specifically, we found the following:
  • The total scale of Kaplanidou for evaluating the cognitive image destination had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.877.
    -
    The environment factor had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.864;
    -
    The experiences factor had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.819;
    -
    The attractions factor had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.893;
    -
    The entertainment and infrastructure factor had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.707.
  • The scale of Kaplanidou for evaluating the affective image destination had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.909;
  • The scale of Schiffman and Kanuk (2007) for the intention to participate in municipal sports events and exercise–recreation programs had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.956.

4.4. Principal Components Analysis of the Cognitive Elements of Destination Image Scale

To evaluate the validity of the cognitive elements of the destination image scale, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted using principal component analysis (PCA) for the seventeen variables of cognitive elements of destination image for the entire sample. The method of orthogonal rotation was applied afterward. The number of factors was determined based on the criterion that eigenvalues should be greater than 1.00. The smallest factor loading used to assign items to factors was 0.40. Based on the destination image scale (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993; Kaplanidou, 2006), the seventeen variables of cognitive elements of the destination image were analyzed. The PCA revealed four factors that explained 67.901% of the total variance (Table 1):
  • Environment;
  • Experiences;
  • Attractions;
  • Entertainment and infrastructure.

4.5. Descriptive Analysis of the Cognitive Elements of Destination Image Scale

Using the descriptive analysis of the questions related to the evaluation of the cognitive elements of the destination image scale, the following table shows the mean values and standard deviations (Table 2).

4.6. Principal Component Analysis of the Affective Elements of Destination Image Scale

To evaluate the validity of the affective elements of the destination image scale, an exploratory factor analysis using principal components analysis was performed on the five variables of the affective elements of the destination image for the entire sample. The principal component analysis revealed one factor (Table 3).

4.7. Descriptive Analysis of the Affective Elements of Destination Image Scale

Using the descriptive analysis of the questions regarding the affective elements of the destination image scale, the following table shows the mean values and standard deviations (Table 4).

4.8. Principal Component Analysis of the Intention to Participate in Sports Events and Exercise Programs Scale

To evaluate the validity of the intention elements of the scale, an exploratory factor analysis using principal components analysis was performed on the three variables of the intention elements for the entire sample. The principal component analysis revealed one factor (Table 5).

4.9. Descriptive Analysis of the Intention Scale

Using the descriptive analysis of the questions regarding the intention scale, the following table shows the mean values and standard deviations (Table 6).

4.10. Results of Research Hypotheses

i
There is a positive correlation between the cognitive and affective image of the destination.
The results from the Pearson correlation analysis between cognitive and affective destination images revealed a statistically significant correlation between them (r = 0.402, p < 0.001) (Table 7).
ii
There is a positive correlation between the cognitive image of the destination and the intention to participate in the future or to continue participating.
The results from the Pearson correlation analysis between cognitive destination image and the intention for future participation revealed a statistically significant correlation between them (r = 0.166, p < 0.001) (Table 7).
iii
There is a positive correlation between the affective image of the destination and the intention to participate in the future or to continue participating.
The results from the Pearson correlation analysis between affective destination image and intention for future participation did not reveal a statistically significant correlation between them (r = 0.097, p < 0.001) (Table 7).

4.11. Destination Image, Salary, and Education

The results from the multiple analysis of variance between affective destination image and salary in combination with education showed no statistically significant interaction between them (F = 0.712, p < 0.005). Similarly, there was no statistically significant interaction between cognitive destination image and salary in combination with education (F = 0.997, p < 0.005) (Table 8).
The results from the multiple analysis of variance between affective destination image and salary showed no statistically significant main effect between them (F = 0.320, p < 0.005). Similarly, there was no statistically significant correlation between cognitive destination image and salary (F = 0.186, p < 0.005) (Table 8).
The results from the multiple analysis of variance between affective destination image and education showed no statistically significant main effect between them (F = 0.427, p < 0.005). Similarly, there was no statistically significant main effect between cognitive destination image and education (F = 0.312, p < 0.005) (Table 8).

4.12. Destination Image, Gender, and Age

The results from the multiple analysis of variance between affective destination image and gender in combination with age showed no statistically significant interaction between them (F = 0.570, p < 0.005). Similarly, there was no statistically significant interaction between cognitive destination image and gender in combination with age (F = 1.870, p < 0.005) (Table 9).

4.13. There Is No Relationship Between Destination Image and Gender

The results from the multiple analysis of variance between affective destination image and gender showed no statistically significant main effect between them (F = 0.026, p < 0.005). Similarly, there was no statistically significant main effect between cognitive destination image and gender (F = 0.980, p < 0.005) (Table 9).

4.14. There Is a Relationship Between Destination Image and Age

The results from the multiple analysis of variance between affective destination image and age revealed a statistically significant main effect between them (F = 5.365, p < 0.005). Similarly, a statistically significant main effect was found between cognitive destination image and age (F = 4.029, p < 0.005) (Table 9).
This section reports the findings of the analysis regarding several factors (education, salary, gender, and age) in relation to the destination image, specifically distinguishing between cognitive and affective image aspects. As you can see, some factors (like age) were found to have significant relationships with destination image, while others (such as gender and salary) showed no significant associations.
Table 10 and Table 11 present the pairwise comparisons and the mean scores for the two dependent variables—affective destination image and cognitive destination image. Comparisons are made between different age groups (1: 17–39 years, 2: 40–59 years, and 3: 60 years and older).
Significant differences were identified using the Sidak test:
For affective destination image, a significant difference was found between age group 1 (17–39 years) with a mean of 5.18 and age group 2 (40–59 years) with a mean of 4.75 (M.D. = 0.433, p < 0.05), as well as between age group 2 (40–59 years) and age group 3 (60+ years) with a mean of 5.32 (M.D. = 0.573, p < 0.05).
For cognitive destination image, a significant difference was observed between age group 2 (40–59 years) with a mean of 4.62 and age group 3 (60+ years) with a mean of 5.16 (M.D. = 0.531, p < 0.05).

5. Discussion

The cognitive destination image is strongly linked to individuals’ intentions to take part in or continue engaging with future sports events and programs. The results of the Pearson correlation analysis conducted in this study confirmed a statistically significant correlation, consistent with recent findings indicating that a positive cognitive image of a destination enhances the desire of tourists or participants to return or re-engage with that destination (Sriboonluea, 2023).
Numerous studies have highlighted the role of cognitive image as a major factor influencing tourist behavior. Sriboonluea (2023) identifies the cognitive image as a mediator between destination awareness and participation intention, emphasizing its psychological influence on participation motivation. Similarly, Cherifi et al. (2018) stress that destination experiences are shaped by cognitive perceptions, making these perceptions critical in destination evaluation.
Other researchers have also found that the destination image can positively impact tourists’ behavioral intentions and directly influences satisfaction and repeat participation intentions, increasing the likelihood of future involvement in tourism activities (Fitri, 2021; Biswas & Shabbirhusain, 2020; Nghiêm-Phú & Bagul, 2020; Wang & Butkouskaya, 2023; Chen et al., 2023; Jantori, 2023). In the context of sports events, research indicates that cognitive destination image is strongly connected to participants’ experiences and satisfaction and that it can directly influence tourist behavior, including their intention to revisit the destination. More specifically, cognitive image influences decisions to participate in tourist events, such as sports competitions (Fitri, 2021; Ramkissoon et al., 2011).
Recognition of the cognitive image as a key factor in participation intention enhances its value within tourism marketing strategy and destination management, being instrumental in shaping positive tourist attitudes and expectations (S. B. Kim & Kwon, 2018).
Sport tourism managers should prioritize enhancing the destination image, as it has a positive influence on tourist satisfaction, emotional attachment to the place, and the intention to revisit. Studies by Y. D. Liu (2016), Jeong and Kim (2019), and Swart et al. (2018) have confirmed its impact on tourist satisfaction. Additionally, prior research supports the crucial role of destination image in fostering place attachment (Jeong & Kim, 2019) and encouraging repeat visitation (Su et al., 2018; Zouni et al., 2020; Jantori, 2023).
Enhancing a city’s destination image requires strengthening both its cognitive and emotional components. Promoting a strong event image can help municipal authorities build consumer trust in public services, thereby boosting the likelihood of participation (Wang & Butkouskaya, 2023). To encourage sports tourists to return, tourism managers should focus on increasing satisfaction and motivation by offering tailored products and services that align with tourists’ needs and preferences (Chen et al., 2023). Improvements in destination image and tourist satisfaction can also be influenced by the information sources tourists rely on and their individual characteristics, such as motivation and prior experience (Chen et al., 2023). Moreover, expanding service offerings—such as providing medical support for sports-related injuries—can further enhance the destination’s image and increase the intention to revisit (Chen et al., 2023).
The cognitive image involves the environment, (2) experiences, (3) attractions, and (4) recreational infrastructure, which are crucial in shaping tourists’ perceptions. Municipal authorities must highlight their capabilities as hosts for sports events and demonstrate competitive advantages in these areas. At the same time, marketers should focus on creating a strong and appealing image that highlights the city’s friendliness, comfort, and safety. In addition, they should engage in sustainable marketing efforts that promote environmental awareness and demonstrate social responsibility to foster a positive event image. A well-developed event image can positively influence customer decision-making, encourage desired behaviors, and ultimately enhance organizational performance (Wang & Butkouskaya, 2023). Balancing these cognitive and affective elements will attract both first-time and returning visitors. Furthermore, fostering positive attitudes towards sports tourism can enhance tourists’ behavioral intentions to revisit and recommend the city. By emphasizing the city’s cultural richness, diverse cuisine, event calendar, and historical significance, marketers can differentiate the city from other sports tourism destinations. This approach will not only attract sports enthusiasts but also engage other potential tourists, reinforcing the city’s status as a sports tourism hub (Yu et al., 2024).
In summary, the cognitive image of a destination is directly associated with the intention to participate, as demonstrated by studies in tourism and sports events. This process underlines the importance of developing and maintaining a positive image to strengthen tourist participation intentions.
In their study, Malchrowicz-Mośko and Munsters (2018) analyze the importance of the cultural context in sports tourism related to martial arts, focusing on the development of the “cognitive image” of destinations through cultural exchanges and participation in sporting events (Richards, 2011). The present research examines the relationship between the cognitive image of a destination and the intention to participate in future sporting events, finding a significant positive correlation. However, the affective image does not appear to be associated with participation intentions, which may contrast with the approach of previous research suggesting that affective factors play a crucial role in attracting tourists (Talebi, 2017).
Furthermore, the finding that the destination image is related to age indicates that different demographic groups may perceive sports tourism differently, something that may not be fully covered in the research by Malchrowicz-Mośko and Munsters (2018). Therefore, these differences highlight the need for further investigation into the cultural and demographic aspects of tourism as they influence participation in sporting events.
According to the study by Pawelec et al. (2020), the cognitive destination image is a decisive factor in the decision to participate, agreeing with the finding of the present research that there is a relationship between it and the intention–purpose for future participation. Also, the fact that no relationship emerged in our results between affective image and intention–purpose to participate aligns with the observation of Pawelec et al. (2020) that other factors often outweigh affective ones. Finally, our finding that there is a relationship between Destination Image and age is consistent with research findings showing that tourist preferences differ by age group, which reinforces the importance of demographic analysis in martial arts tourism.
There appears to be no relationship between the affective destination image and the intention to participate or continue participation in future events. Although there is limited research on the interaction between affective image and intention in the context of sports tourism, affective image plays a significant role in understanding tourist behavioral intentions. However, the present study found no statistically significant relationship between affective image and participation intention.
Wei et al. (2024) emphasized the importance of emotions in forming destination images and how they influence tourists’ willingness to travel, though such effects may be less direct in sports event contexts. Similarly, Y. Liu et al. (2023) noted that affective attachment positively affects purchase intentions regarding sports brands, suggesting an effective image may influence participation or purchase desires in specific contexts.
Di-Clemente et al. (2022) further highlighted the interaction between emotional arousal and visitor behavior, emphasizing the limited yet context-specific influence of affective image on behavioral intentions in sports tourism. These findings underscore the need for further research into the affective image of sports destinations or events.
A significant relationship was found between destination image and age, indicating that different age groups may perceive and experience sports or tourism events differently, which is shaped by the destination image. The analysis revealed that age gaps may affect both cognitive and affective responses. Significant differences were observed in affective dimensions between the younger group (17–39 years) and the middle-aged group (40–59 years), as well as between the middle-aged and older group (60+ years). Differences were also found in cognitive dimensions between the middle-aged and older groups.
Research by Najar and Rather (2023) confirmed that cognitive and affective destination images shape revisit intentions and that age can influence experiential perception and the likelihood of returning. Age-related differences suggest varying motivations and goals when planning trips, implying a need for differentiated marketing strategies (Jin et al., 2020).
S. Kim et al. (2019) confirmed that destination familiarity influences both cognitive assessments and emotional reactions, indicating a dynamic interaction between age and destination perception. Ceylan et al. (2021) added that cognitive perceptions differ significantly across age groups and may also be shaped by the destination or event type.
In conclusion, this study’s findings align with recent research, recognizing the importance of age-related cognitive and affective dimensions. Municipalities should consider targeting the 40–59 age group through strategic planning to strengthen their affective and cognitive connections to sports events and programs, as this group exhibited differing perceptions compared to other age categories.
There was no statistically significant relationship between destination image and income or education. This finding aligns with other studies, which indicate that demographic variables may not always be decisive in shaping destination image perceptions.
Ceylan et al. (2020) emphasized that despite expectations, demographic factors might not significantly impact destination image. Their study found no major relationships between demographic traits and perceived destination image, supporting the current study’s results.
Muntean et al. (2023) focused on how satisfaction and loyalty are more influenced by destination authenticity and infrastructure quality rather than economic or educational variables. Similarly, Pereira et al. (2022) pointed out that cultural and emotional aspects are more critical than financial parameters in attracting tourists.
Yang et al. (2024) noted that international students’ experiences abroad influence destination loyalty, suggesting that education level might have indirect effects requiring further exploration. Ali et al. (2020) also highlighted the importance of destination attractiveness, showing that economic and educational factors are not the only influencers of tourist behavior.
Overall, the lack of correlation between income/education and destination image in sports tourism is consistent with broader literature trends. These complex relationships warrant further investigation into the true factors shaping destination image.
Lastly, no significant relationship was found between destination image, gender, and age combined. This suggests that these demographic variations do not significantly affect the affective or cognitive perception of tourists regarding a destination.
Malchrowicz-Mośko and Poczta (2018) noted that while destination images shaped by sports events vary across demographics, there is no systematic evidence that gender and age directly impact image formation. This reinforces the present findings.
Ramasamy et al. (2021) reported that tourists’ intentions to participate in international events are influenced more by psychological and emotional factors than by demographic traits such as age or gender. Similarly, Setyaningtyas et al. (2021) found that the quality of sports events plays a more decisive role in shaping destination image than demographic parameters.
Bazzanella et al. (2019) also found that the perceptions of various stakeholders regarding sports events are influenced more by cultural and social contexts than by gender or age.
In conclusion, recent studies confirm the limited impact of demographic factors on the Destination Image of sports events. Instead, visitor experiences and event quality have a stronger influence on image formation and behavioral outcomes.

6. Conclusions

The present study aimed to examine the cognitive and affective components of destination image, as well as their relationship with individuals’ intentions to participate or continue participating in sports events organized by a municipality. Additionally, it explored the effect of socio-demographic variables (such as income, education, age, and gender) on the perceived destination image.
The findings indicate a statistically significant relationship between cognitive and affective destination image, supporting previous research that has emphasized the interconnectedness of these two dimensions (e.g., Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Hosany et al., 2006). This positive correlation suggests that individuals who cognitively evaluate a destination favorably also tend to form a positive emotional connection with it.
Moreover, cognitive destination image was found to significantly correlate with participants’ intention to (re)participate in future events, aligning with the theoretical framework that positions cognitive evaluations as key predictors of behavioral intentions (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Stylidis et al., 2014). In contrast, no significant relationship was found between affective destination image and intention to participate, a finding that somewhat diverges from prior studies (e.g., Hosany et al., 2006) and may be attributed to contextual factors such as the nature of the event, the destination’s familiarity, or the demographic profile of the sample.
In terms of socio-demographic factors, no statistically significant relationships were found between destination image (both cognitive and affective) and participants’ income or education level. Similarly, gender, either independently or in interaction with age, did not significantly affect image perceptions. However, significant differences were observed across age groups. Specifically, individuals aged 40–59 evaluated both the affective and cognitive images of the destination less favorably compared to the younger (17–39) and older (60+) age groups. These findings are particularly noteworthy and suggest that middle-aged participants may have higher expectations or be more critical in their assessments due to increased exposure to different destinations or accumulated life experience.
The affective image of the destination was significantly higher for the oldest age group (60+), a finding that may reflect a greater appreciation of the local environment or a more affective evaluation style typically associated with older adults (Carstensen et al., 2003). Similarly, the highest cognitive image scores were observed among the same age group, reinforcing the idea that older participants might be more positively inclined or experienced in engaging with such events and settings.
In summary, the results provide evidence for the importance of cognitive evaluations in influencing behavioral intentions while also highlighting how age may differentially shape perceptions of the destination image. These findings can inform strategic planning and marketing efforts for municipalities aiming to promote sports tourism across diverse demographic segments.

7. Implications

7.1. Theoretical Implications

The theoretical contribution of this study lies in the integration and expansion of existing theoretical approaches concerning both the cognitive and affective effects of local sports activities on the formation of destination images. Specifically, this study extends the theoretical framework related to the perception of the environment, tourist experiences, attractions, and leisure infrastructure by incorporating the affective dimension, thereby offering a multidimensional understanding of destination image. Furthermore, this research explores how transformations in tourism influence local sports initiatives, which in turn combine individuals’ knowledge and emotions to shape a positive image of the destination.

7.2. Practical Implications

The practical contribution of this research lies in the applications that can be adopted by local government authorities and tourism program managers to enhance the destination image through targeted sports initiatives. Based on the experiences of a sample of 456 adults and validated measurement scales, the findings confirm that local sports activities contribute not only by shaping cognitive parameters but also by strengthening emotional engagement and social connectivity. Moreover, in line with insights from studies on tourism system management and contemporary local development strategies, the results of this research can serve as a practical guide for the design and optimization of sports programs that foster long-term community involvement and enhance the overall image of the destination in highly competitive environments.

8. Limitations and Future Research

The limitations of the present study are primarily found in the methodology and sampling framework. Specifically, the fact that the sample consisted exclusively of 456 adults who voluntarily participated in public programs in specific municipalities of Attica may limit the generalizability of the results to broader geographic or socio-cultural contexts (Cho et al., 2020; Londoño et al., 2021). Additionally, the adaptation of the questionnaire based on Kaplanidou’s (2006) scale may not fully capture the complexity of both the cognitive and affective dimensions involved in the formation of destination image, while potential variables such as nostalgia for past sports events or the influence of external factors (e.g., environmental or cultural elements) were not included (Manosudhikul, 2024; Jeong, 2023). Furthermore, the cross-sectional design limitation prevents the tracking of long-term changes in the destination image that may arise from repeated participation or shifting social conditions (Jeong et al., 2020).
Regarding future research, there are several prospects that could contribute to both improving the theoretical foundation and the practical application of local sports initiatives in shaping destination image. Specifically, future studies could expand the data framework by incorporating samples from diverse geographic and socio-cultural environments, allowing for the exploration of the effects of sports initiatives in different demographic and environmental contexts (Londoño et al., 2021). Moreover, adopting a mixed-methods approach could reveal deeper insights into the mechanisms through which cognitive and affective dimensions interact, enabling the detection of variables such as nostalgia and emotional engagement (Manosudhikul, 2024; Jeong, 2023). Finally, conducting longitudinal studies and integrating innovative technologies, such as virtual tours, could significantly contribute to understanding the transitional process of image formation, enhancing theoretical models and the practical application of initiatives aimed at improving the experience and engagement of the local community (Jeong et al., 2020).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, C.A. and G.Y.; methodology, C.A., G.Y., C.K. and G.C.; formal analysis, C.A. and G.Y.; investigation, C.A. and G.Y.; resources, A.P., G.Y. and C.A.; data curation, C.A. and G.Y.; writing—original draft preparation, C.A., A.P. and G.Y.; writing—review and editing, C.A., A.P. and G.Y.; visualization, G.Y. and A.P.; supervision, G.Y.; project administration, C.A., G.Y., C.K. and G.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

There is no funding for this research.

Institutional Review Board Statement

This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Democritus University of Thrace, under reference number DUTH/EHDE/31132/202, 26 January 2021).

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study.

Data Availability Statement

Data supporting reported results can be shared after communication with the researchers.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Table 1. Factor analysis of cognitive elements of destination image questionnaire.
Table 1. Factor analysis of cognitive elements of destination image questionnaire.
Scale Items1234
Unspoiled/Pure Environment0.794
Excellent Routes0.773
Good Climate0.761
Opportunities for Sports Activities0.692
Beautiful Landscapes/Natural Attractions0.592
Good Value for Money0.585
Basic Hygiene and Cleanliness 0.857
Personal Safety 0.851
Infrastructure Quality 0.758
Adequate Accommodation 0.498
Friendly People 0.489
Large Museums 0.930
Interesting Historical Attractions 0.883
Wonderful Beaches 0.841
Good Nightlife and Entertainment 0.852
Quality Restaurants 0.702
Shopping Facilities 0.664
Eigenvalue3629316926922053
Variance Percentage %21.34618.64115.83812.077
Cumulative Percentage %67.901
Table 2. Means and standard deviations of the cognitive elements of destination image scale.
Table 2. Means and standard deviations of the cognitive elements of destination image scale.
VariableNMinMaxMeanStd. Deviation
Opportunities for sports activities447175.421.355
Good climate440175.171.407
Friendly people444175.111.277
Adequate accommodation442174.951.488
Basic hygiene and cleanliness450174.921.422
Shopping facilities439174.831.478
Excellent value for money441174.801.394
Excellent routes441174.801.655
Personal safety447174.761.391
Infrastructure quality445174.751.303
Beautiful landscapes/natural attractions442174.731.726
Quality restaurants438174.691.498
Unspoiled/pure environment442174.201.645
Good nightlife and entertainment445174.061.676
Interesting historical attractions440172.682.135
Large museums437172.281.929
Wonderful beaches437172.041.894
Table 3. Factor analysis of affective elements of destination image questionnaire.
Table 3. Factor analysis of affective elements of destination image questionnaire.
ItemsLoadingsTotal% of VarianceCumulative %
Hostile/Friendly0.8563.67173.41373.413
Unpleasant/Pleasant0.886
Lethargic/Active0.844
Stressful/Relaxing0.837
Boring/Exciting0.860
Table 4. Descriptive analysis of the affective elements of destination image scale.
Table 4. Descriptive analysis of the affective elements of destination image scale.
NMinMaxMeanStd. D.
Hostile/Friendly440175.181.494
Unpleasant/Pleasant444175.071.492
Lethargic/Active447175.061.444
Stressful/Relaxing438174.871.620
Boring/Exciting440174.761.476
Table 5. Factor analysis of the intention to participate in sports events and exercise programs scale.
Table 5. Factor analysis of the intention to participate in sports events and exercise programs scale.
ItemsLoadingsTotal% of VarianceCumulative %
I intend to start/continue exercising next month0.9742.78292.71892.718
I will try to start/continue exercising next month0.976
I am confident that I will start/continue exercising next month0.939
Table 6. Descriptive analysis of the intention scale.
Table 6. Descriptive analysis of the intention scale.
NMinMaxMeanStd. D.
I intend to start/continue exercising next month411176.650.880
I will try to start/continue exercising next month402176.620.900
I am confident that I will start/continue exercising next month431176.571.018
Table 7. Correlation analysis of destination image and intention for future participation.
Table 7. Correlation analysis of destination image and intention for future participation.
IntentionAffective ImageCognitive Image
Intention 0.0970.166 **
(0.058)(0.001)
392387383
Affective Image0.097 0.402 **
(0.058) (0.000)
387432417
Cognitive Image0.166 **0.402 **
(0.001)(0.000)
383417430
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 8. Multiple analysis of variance: destination image, salary, and education.
Table 8. Multiple analysis of variance: destination image, salary, and education.
Destination ImagedfFSig.
EducationAffective image50.4270.830
Cognitive image50.3120.906
SalaryAffective image20.3200.726
Cognitive image20.1860.830
Education * SalaryAffective image90.7120.698
Cognitive image90.9970.442
Design: Intercept + education + salary + education * salary (interaction).
Table 9. Multiple analysis of variance: destination image, gender, and age.
Table 9. Multiple analysis of variance: destination image, gender, and age.
Destination ImagedfFSig.
GenderAffective image10.0260.871
Cognitive image10.9800.323
AgeAffective image25.3650.005
Cognitive image24.0290.019
Gender * AgeAffective image20.5700.566
Cognitive image21.8700.155
Design: Intercept + gender + age + gender * age (interaction).
Table 10. Pairwise comparisons between destination image and age groups (1: 17–39 years, 2: 40–59 years, 3: 60+ years).
Table 10. Pairwise comparisons between destination image and age groups (1: 17–39 years, 2: 40–59 years, 3: 60+ years).
(I) Age(J) AgeMean
Difference (I-J)		Std. ErrorSig. b95% Confidence
Interval for Difference b
Lower BoundUpper Bound
Affective Image120.433 *0.1700.0340.0250.840
3−0.1400.2430.917−0.7220.442
21−0.433 *0.1700.034−0.840−0.025
3−0.573 *0.2190.027−1.098−0.048
310.1400.2430.917−0.4420.722
20.573 *0.2190.0270.0481.098
Cognitive Image120.2580.1560.269−0.1160.633
3−0.2730.2230.530−0.8070.262
21−0.2580.1560.269−0.6330.116
3−0.531 *0.2010.026−1.013−0.048
310.2730.2230.530−0.2620.807
20.531 *0.2010.0260.0481.013
* Based on estimated marginal means and the mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. b Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Sidak. Mean Difference (I-J): Mean of group I minus Mean of group J.
Table 11. Means of destination image by age group.
Table 11. Means of destination image by age group.
AgeMeanStd. Error95% Confidence Interval
Lower BoundUpper Bound
Affective Image15.1800.1414.9025.457
24.7470.0954.5614.933
35.3200.1974.9315.708
Cognitive Image14.8830.1304.6285.138
24.6240.0874.4534.796
35.1550.1814.7995.512
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Avloniti, C.; Yfantidou, G.; Papaioannou, A.; Kouthouris, C.; Costa, G. Participant Perceptions and Destination Image: Cognitive and Affective Dimensions in Local Sports Contexts. Tour. Hosp. 2025, 6, 120. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020120

AMA Style

Avloniti C, Yfantidou G, Papaioannou A, Kouthouris C, Costa G. Participant Perceptions and Destination Image: Cognitive and Affective Dimensions in Local Sports Contexts. Tourism and Hospitality. 2025; 6(2):120. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020120

Chicago/Turabian Style

Avloniti, Christina, Georgia Yfantidou, Alkistis Papaioannou, Charilaos Kouthouris, and George Costa. 2025. "Participant Perceptions and Destination Image: Cognitive and Affective Dimensions in Local Sports Contexts" Tourism and Hospitality 6, no. 2: 120. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020120

APA Style

Avloniti, C., Yfantidou, G., Papaioannou, A., Kouthouris, C., & Costa, G. (2025). Participant Perceptions and Destination Image: Cognitive and Affective Dimensions in Local Sports Contexts. Tourism and Hospitality, 6(2), 120. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6020120

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