Consumers’ Attitudes Toward Domestic Leisure Tourism: The Case of Bulgaria

Abstract

The present paper aims to analyze consumers’ attitudes to domestic leisure tourism, considering essential factors that affect consumer travel choices and experiences. The focus is on the attitudes to the main advantages and disadvantages of domestic leisure tourism in Bulgaria. The research is based on the outcomes of a nationally representative survey among 1003 respondents aged over 18. The results are interpreted using the Fishbein multi-attribute model. The results reveal that the customers’ attitudes toward the advantages of the Bulgarian winter (ski) and summer (sea) domestic leisure tourism are relatively higher compared to the midpoint of the interval and to their highest point. Although the score for summer domestic leisure tourism is slightly lower than that of winter tourism, Bulgarian consumers appear to be more dissatisfied with the advantages of summer (sea) domestic leisure tourism. The dissatisfaction is not only greater compared to the midpoint of the scale but also in comparison to the disadvantages associated with winter domestic leisure tourism. Overall, Bulgarian consumers are more attracted to the positive aspects of domestic winter leisure tourism and more concerned about the negative aspects of summer tourism.

1. Introduction

Tourism is an important factor in the development of countries with rich tourism resources. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, the tourism industry contributed over 13% of the world’s GDP (WTTC, 2024). In 2020, international tourism declined sharply due to travel restrictions, while domestic tourism gained renewed attention (Varadzhakova et al., 2021; Naumov et al., 2021). After the removal of border closures and travel restrictions, outbound and inbound tourism recovered partially, but the significance of domestic tourism and its importance has already been clearly established (Kifworo & Dube, 2023). Domestic leisure tourism is essential to the economy of numerous nations, as it can support local businesses, strengthen national identity, and address seasonality (Martínez et al., 2020). The World Tourism Organization (UN Tourism) states that domestic tourism accounts for a larger share of total tourism earnings than international tourism (UN Tourism, 2020). The importance of domestic tourism is not only in economic terms (Bob & Gounden, 2024) but also in the context of social impacts, promoting a deeper understanding of a nation’s culture and history. In the aftermath of COVID-19, many governments and tourism organizations have progressively focused their attention on the development and enhancement of domestic tourism as a sustainable and resilient sector (Huynh et al., 2022; Efthimiou, 2024). The significance of domestic tourism determines the research problem that this study addresses, namely, the insufficient number of empirical studies of domestic tourists’ attitudes towards the advantages and disadvantages of this type of tourism in specific destinations.

Given this context, a systematic study of tourist attitudes and behavior has become increasingly important. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, there was an implicit focus on marketing and on the preferences of international tourists, but there is not much research on domestic tourists’ attitudes (Lück & Seeler, 2021). A review of Scopus and Web of Science-indexed journals indicates that scholarly interest in domestic tourist attitudes began to grow around 2017 (7 papers), peaking in 2024 with the publication of approximately 30 articles in high-quality journals. However, most of this research focuses on destinations in the Asia-Pacific region (Dar & Kashyap, 2025; Kareem et al., 2025; Nguyen et al., 2025; Hoang, 2024; Tiwari & Chowdhary, 2024; Zheng et al., 2024; Wani et al., 2023), with relatively few studies conducted in Europe (De Canio et al., 2023; Huaman-Ramirez, 2020; Prayag et al., 2018; Jeuring, 2017). Notably, empirical studies on domestic tourist attitudes in Eastern Europe remain scarce (Varadzhakova & Naydenov, 2024; Telbisz et al., 2022; Ile et al., 2021).

The literature review reveals that, although growing, the number of publications examining the attitudes of domestic tourists remains limited and insufficient—particularly in Eastern Europe, where there is a notable lack of empirical studies on the subject (Naumov et al., 2024). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the role of domestic tourism for all destinations relying on the development of this industry was noticed. Therefore, research on the attitudes of domestic tourists is important for all destinations with rich tourism potential. In Eastern Europe, the majority of countries have diverse tourism resources, and for many of them, tourism is a key sector in their economic development. Because of this, it is necessary to expand research on domestic tourism in destinations from this geographical region. Existing research that does address this issue tends to be based on varying theoretical frameworks and focuses on different forms of tourism, often relying on small and unrepresentative consumer samples. While these studies contribute valuable insights into specific aspects of the topic, they hinder the ability to identify overarching trends applicable across tourism destinations. A comprehensive analysis of the tourism literature confirms the absence of representative studies on the attitudes of domestic tourists in Eastern Europe. This article aims to address that gap by presenting a representative analysis of the perceived advantages and disadvantages of a domestic destination based on empirical research conducted in Bulgaria. For the first time, it also assesses the weight of attitudes toward negative destination characteristics using the Fishbein multi-attribute attitude model. Researching public attitudes toward domestic tourism and their connection to consumer behavior is a key factor in developing an effective national marketing strategy. Such research supports the growth of domestic tourism, helps optimize the supply of tourism products, and enables the reshaping of a country’s image as a tourist destination when necessary. The aim of this paper is to examine tourist attitudes toward domestic leisure tourism, considering the key factors that influence consumer travel choices and experiences. The focus is on perceptions of the main advantages and disadvantages of domestic leisure tourism in Bulgaria. The study is based on empirical research conducted in Bulgaria and presents the findings of a nationally representative survey of 1003 respondents aged 18 and over. The results are analyzed using the Fishbein multi-attribute model.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Characteristics of the Attitudes

Attitudes represent an important aspect of human behavior and interaction. They influence both personal and social processes and can be modified through education, socialization, media, and personal experience. Attitudes are diverse and complex (Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960; Madzarevic, 2017) and can manifest themselves in different aspects of human behavior (Mancheva-Ali & Prodanova, 2021).

Understanding attitudes is key to solving social, political, and economic issues, as well as improving individual and collective well-being. Attitudes are a concept that has been defined and analyzed by various sciences. Their empirical research on psychology starts in the early 20th century (Maio & Haddock, 2010). However, the basis is Gorden Allport’s definition in the field of psychology, namely, “A mental or neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related” (Allport, 1935). Accordingly, attitudes are not formulated only by external factors but by the mental state of the individuals, and they make them act in a specific way. The attitudes could change and are the subject of the previous experience of the person (Allport, 1935; Olufemi, 2012). Albarracín et al. define the evaluation as a key element of attitudes. It could be an evaluation of product, situation, etc. (Albarracín et al., 2018). As an antecedent to an action (Olufemi, 2012) or behavior, the attitudes should be researched in depth (Kock et al., 2016). According to Wolf et al. (2020), attitudes are psychological constructs that define how an individual perceives their environment and how they are likely to behave in specific situations. Their structure is defined by three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral (Wolf et al., 2020). These components are the basis of the so-called tripartite model of the psychologist Albert Ellis (1957). Ellis developed the ABC model to clarify how activating events result in beliefs, which in turn have emotional and behavioral repercussions. Although this model is part of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), in social psychology, it is used to describe the key components of attitudes. When used in the context of attitudes, it is known as the ABC model of attitude (Eagly & Chaiken, 1998). These components of the attitudes reflect the individual’s feelings and emotions towards the attitude object (the affective component), how attitudes cause people to behave or act (the behavioral component), and what the individual’s knowledge and beliefs are towards the object of the attitude (the cognitive component).

A very important characteristic of the attitude is its strength. Howe and Krosnick (2017) point out that attitude strength reflects the extent to which it is important in shaping the thinking and behavior of individuals in different situations. They state that strong attitudes are those that define personal behavior and are resistant to change, unlike weak ones. Krosnick and Petty (1995) believe that durability and impactfulness are the main characteristics of strong attitudes. They consider persistence, resistance, impact on information processing and judgments, and guiding behavior are those attitude characteristics that define attitude strength. According to Conner et al. (2022), the main predictor of attitude strength is attitude importance. It represents the degree of psychological significance that people attach to an attitude (Boninger et al., 1995).

The attitudes can be classified according to various criteria, such as their direction, nature, strength, or depending on the object they are directed at. Some basic types of attitudes that are found in psychology and other social sciences are:

• Cognitive attitudes—the way a person perceives, thinks about, and evaluates various objects or situations. Cognitive attitudes usually include beliefs and knowledge that people have about something and are based on the cognitive element of the attitudes (Katz & Stotland, 1959).
• Emotional attitudes—attitudes related to the feelings and emotions individuals experience towards different objects. They determine the emotional relationship to something or someone. Emotional attitudes could be positive, negative, or neutral. They are based on the effect as a component of the attitudes (Katz & Stotland, 1959).
• Behavioral attitudes—these attitudes are manifested in the tendency of an individual to behave in a certain way towards a given object, event, or group. They are based on the cognitive and emotional components of attitude (Katz & Stotland, 1959) and lead to actions. Behavioral attitudes could be active or passive.
• Rational and irrational attitudes (Jung, 1921)—rational attitudes are those when the attitude is based on logical arguments, evidence, and practical need, and irrational attitudes are not based on logic but on emotions, stereotypes, or prejudices. They often lead to erroneous conclusions and behavior.
• Autonomous and dependent attitudes—autonomous attitudes are those when a person has confidence in their abilities and decisions based on personal beliefs and actions, and dependent attitudes are when a person relies on the opinions of others, external factors, or authorities to shape their perceptions and reactions.

2.2. The Role of Attitude Analysis in Economics and Tourism

In economics, attitudes are considered an important factor in consumer behavior (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986; Ajzen, 1991; Bagozzi, 1992; Schiffman & Kanuk, 2007), market decisions (Ajzen, 1991; Dar & Hakeem, 2016; Nadeem et al., 2020), the functioning of markets (Tormala & Rucker, 2025), and economic trends (Mutz, 2021; Frieden, 2022). They represent people’s preferences, beliefs, rewards, and perceptions about economic processes that can change their decisions about consumption, saving, investing, working, and other economic actions. Economists analyze how attitudes toward economic conditions can influence consumer decisions. For example, if people have negative attitudes toward the economic situation, this can lead to reduced consumption. In tourism, positive attitudes toward a destination can direct tourist flows to it, while negative ones can reinforce its negative image and reduce demand. Consequently, research on consumer attitudes in economics and tourism is very important for understanding consumers’ demand.

Attitudes in tourism, referred to as tourists’ or visitors’ attitudes (Hadinejad et al., 2024), play an important role in forming tourist behavior and influence the way people choose destinations (Ayeh et al., 2013; Kim & Kwon, 2018), plan trips and interact with the social and natural environment, before, during and after travel. In tourism research, the focus of the attitudes is on consumers’ evaluation of tourism products or characteristics of a destination. Although positive attitudes are generally a result of customer satisfaction, Ardani et al. (2019) argue that the relationship between service quality, satisfaction, and loyalty toward destinations is not always linear. Understanding tourist attitudes is essential for tourism companies and organizations aiming to offer products and services that align with the expectations and preferences of diverse tourist segments. In tourism, attitudes can be defined as predispositions or tendencies to respond positively or negatively (Plaza-Mejía et al., 2023), encompassing tourists’ perceptions and emotions toward various aspects of tourism, such as events, destinations, and services. These attitudes are fundamental to understanding tourists’ needs and motivations and play a crucial role in the marketing of tourism destinations and services (Bouchriha et al., 2024; Hadinejad et al., 2024), as well as in shaping destination image (Haarhoff, 2018). Assessing tourist attitudes supports market segmentation, the personalization of marketing strategies, the optimization of tourism products, and the prediction of consumer behavior.

There are several attitude models. According to psychology as a science, attitudes have three components: cognitive, affective, and behavioral. The cognitive component includes beliefs and thoughts about the object; the affective—feelings and emotions related to the object; and the behavioral—the tendency to act or react to an object. This fact is the basis of the three-components model, also called ABC (affect, behavior, cognition), CAB, or BAC model of attitudes, depending on the response hierarchy (Niosi, 2021). One of the main advantages of the ABC model of attitudes is that it provides a comprehensive understanding of attitudes, which is based on three main components. It allows a more detailed analysis of attitudes through which to understand what determines a person’s overall evaluation or reaction to a given object, product, or problem. In the field of economics and tourism, multi-attribute attitude models are extremely popular. A serious disadvantage of the model is that it does not take into account factors such as the individual’s unconscious motives or social influences, and it also assumes that the three elements of attitudes are clearly separated. However, in reality, these elements are often highly intertwined and difficult to distinguish. Through the different models, several attributes of the studied object are evaluated. One of the most widely used models in attitude research, particularly in marketing, social psychology, and tourism, is the Fishbein multi-attribute model. Therefore, according to Fishbein’s theory, a consumer’s attitude toward any product is a function of their beliefs about the product and the evaluative aspect of those beliefs (Minchev, 2021). The Fishbein model was created in 1963. Over the years, it has been examined from the perspective of consumer behavior (Bettman, 1979), and its effectiveness has been studied (Sheppard et al., 1988). Fishbein’s model (Fishbein, 1963) has undergone several revisions over the years, first as the theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and then as the theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991). In the TRA, the authors add to the model the subject norms (social opinion and expectations) as a predictor of the intent to act. This theory overcomes one of the shortcomings of the ABC model; namely, it includes social influence in the attitude evaluation process. In economics, the TRA allows for understanding the factors that drive intentions and enables targeted actions to be taken to change attitudes or perceptions of social norms, thereby effectively influencing consumer behavior. Later in the theory of planned behavior, Ajzen includes the topic of control of the behavior, making the theory better at predicting it. Fishbein’s model, particularly the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and its extension, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), focuses on understanding and predicting behavior (Montano et al., 2002). These models posit that behavior is primarily determined by behavioral intention, which, in turn, is influenced by the attitude toward the behavior, the subjective norms, and the perceived behavioral control.

For the purposes of the present paper, the multi-attribute attitude model of Fishbein has been selected. The advantage of the original theory of Fishbein can be seen in the ability to calculate attitude scores using a formula, while subsequent versions and refinements have focused on psychological elements and subjective norms, which are more difficult to calculate. This model best reflects the intentions of the study, as it does not focus on the cognitive, behavioral, and affective elements of attitudes, as in the ABC model, and does not analyze how subjective norms and perceived control predict behavioral intentions and subsequent actions (Bohner & Wanke, 2002), as it is performed in the TPA and TBP models. Numerical evaluations resulting from the application of the Fishbein model provide an opportunity to compare preferred products by consumers, which allows decision-makers to make adequate decisions. Although Fishbein’s multi-attribute attitude model was not created particularly for tourism, it offers an opportunity for a more holistic view of tourists’ perceptions of a destination and a comprehensive way to evaluate the influence of a specific set of attributes on it. For the present research, this model has been modified for the study of the domestic tourists’ attitudes towards leisure summer and winter tourism. It is very appropriate due to its clear metrics to measure the attitude’s effect. Also, the Fishbein model gives the opportunity for a researcher to understand how specific attributes (elements) of an attitude influence the overall attitude and decide which of them needs enhancement. Its application is very important when a destination image has to be improved. The results of analyses based on Fishbein model calculations support decision makers in creating and adapting marketing strategies to work on specific goal achievement and facilitate predicting tourist behavior.

Papers that focus on assessing tourists’ attitudes using the Fishbein multi-attribute model mostly discuss specific positive characteristics of the destinations and tourism products and compare them through their scores of each attribute (Aziz, 2002; Morachat, 2003; Rishi et al., 2013; Amanah et al., 2018; Zakaria & Aziz, 2018; Stefanova, 2022). However, the literature research shows a gap in analyses and calculations of the tourists’ attitudes to the disadvantages of tourism destinations and the importance of the different negative attributes of the destination. However, an emphasis on ranking the negative characteristics of the destination is difficult to find in the scientific literature, and it is necessary to be made because it would support the prioritization of goals for improving tourism destination image.

3. Study Area

As a European country with rich tourism resources, Bulgaria is developing as a destination for both inbound and domestic tourism. Before the pandemic, the tourism industry generated up to 13% of GDP, and tourism is a priority sector in the country’s economy. In Bulgaria, the domestic leisure tourism sector has become a crucial part of the tourism industry. Domestic tourism in Bulgaria has recovered extremely quickly since the pandemic. Already in 2022, arrivals of Bulgarian citizens in accommodation establishments in the country exceeded 4 million, going beyond the levels of 2019 (Statista, 2025). The importance of domestic tourism for the Bulgarian economy can be outlined in several key areas: (1) as a stabilizing force during periods of recession, geopolitical tensions, and global or regional health crises; (2) as a tool for promoting regional economic balance; and (3) as a means of market diversification. While these roles of domestic tourism are well recognized globally, they are particularly relevant to Bulgaria. This makes the country a strong example of a domestic tourism destination that warrants in-depth analysis—specifically, an examination of the advantages and disadvantages of the tourism industry from the perspective of domestic tourists.

Bulgaria is located in Southeastern Europe, in the Balkan Peninsula. The country borders Romania to the north, the Black Sea to the east, Turkey and Greece to the south, and the Republic of North Macedonia and Serbia to the west. Thirty-four percent of the 378 km long Black Sea coastline is occupied by beaches (Lozanov et al., 2001). The coastline makes the country an attractive destination for summer recreational tourism (Naumov, 2017). The climate is temperate continental in the north and transitional continental and Mediterranean in the south. Summer is warm and sunny, with a daily temperature average in July of about 22–24 °C. Sunshine is 2200 h per year, and in summer, it covers 60% of the daylight hours. The average temperature of seawater during the summer months is about 23–24 °C. Climatic conditions along the coast create conditions for an active summer season of about 4–5 months on average, and the high season is in July and August. In addition to coastal areas, a major resource for tourism on the Black Sea coast is also the deposits of healing mud, especially in the area of Balchik Tuzla and Pomorie Lake. The main resorts on the Bulgarian Black Sea coast are Slanchev Briag, Zlatni piasaci, Sts. Constantine and Helena, Albena, Dyuni, Elenite, the historical towns of Nesebar and Sozopol, etc. Across the country, in 2024, one marina and 22 beaches were certified with the Blue Flag award (Blue Flag Bulgaria, 2025).

The typical seasonality of summer and winter domestic tourism in Bulgaria can be presented using official data from the National Statistical Institute of Bulgaria. This is based on the indicator ‘the number of nights’ spent by the local tourists at the seaside and at the mountain resorts with national importance (defined by decision № 45/25.01.2005 of the Council of Ministers of Bulgaria), as shown in Figure 1:

As can be seen in Figure 1, there are peaks in the visits during the summertime (June–August) at the seaside resorts and during the wintertime (December–February) at the winter resorts every year from 2012 to 2024 (data publicly available). As a whole, the number of nights spent by domestic tourists rose substantially during the years following the COVID-19 pandemic, preserving its seasonal specifics.

Mountainous areas (with an altitude of over 600 m) occupy 27.6% of the territory of Bulgaria. They are characterized by cool summers, moderately cold winters, and stable snow cover, reaching 1.5–2 m in places, especially in the high-mountain hypsometric belt. Depending on the altitude in the higher areas, the snow cover lasts between 150 and 250 days a year. The altitude and the exposure of the slopes are the main prerequisites for the development of ski tourism, with an active season of 3 to 5 months. Of greatest importance for tourism in the country are Rila, Pirin, Rhodope, Vitosha, and the Balkan mountain ranges. The resorts of the greatest importance for winter tourism are Bansko, Borovets, and Pamporovo. They offer good opportunities for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter sports on slopes with a variety of difficulties. All of them are attractive not only for winter ski tourism but also for stays in the summer, where eco trails are at the disposal of the tourists.

By analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of winter and summer leisure tourism, the study provides insight into how Bulgaria can continue to increase its attractiveness among the local population during both the summer and winter seasons and overcome some negative attitudes among domestic tourists.

4. Materials and Methods

In order to quantify the consumers’ attitudes toward Bulgarian domestic leisure tourism in its winter (ski) and summer (sea) manifestations, we have used the so-called multi-attribute attitude model.

The latter represents the assumption that consumers’ attitudes toward an attitude object (A) depend on the beliefs they have about several of its attributes. Using the multi-attribute model, an assumption is made that the specific beliefs can be identified and combined to derive a measure of the consumer’s overall attitude (Solomon, 2023).

One of the most popular multi-attribute models is the Fishbein Model, which is named after its developer (Fishbein, 1963). The model incorporates three components of attitude: salient beliefs of the person about a given object, object–attribute linkages (the probability that the given object has an important attribute), and evaluation of the important attributes. Using the combination of these three components, it is possible to measure the overall attitude towards this object. The original form of the model is as follows (Solomon, 2023):

$${\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{jk}}=\sum {\beta }_{\mathrm{ijk}}.{\mathrm{I}}_{\mathrm{ijk}},$$

(1)

where

${\mathrm{A}}_{\mathrm{jk}}$ is a particular consumer’s (k’s) attitude score for brand j.

${\mathrm{I}}_{\mathrm{ijk}}$ is the importance weight for given attribute i of the brand j by consumer k.

${\beta }_{\mathrm{ijk}}$ is the consumer k’s belief regarding the extent to which brand j possesses attribute i.

More specifically, we have used a modified version of the Fishbein multi-attribute attitude model (Fishbein, 1963) mainly due to the abstract nature of this model for measuring the consumers’ attitudes on a large scale. For the purpose of the estimation of the ‘real-world’ customers’ attitudes toward different characteristics of Bulgarian domestic leisure tourism, we introduce a modification of Formula (1) in the following form:

$${\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_{\mathrm{j}}=\sum {\widehat{\beta }}_{\mathrm{ij}}.{\widehat{\mathrm{I}}}_{\mathrm{ij}},$$

(2)

where

${\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_{\mathrm{j}}$ is an estimate of a particular consumer’s attitude score for brand j.

${\widehat{\mathrm{I}}}_{\mathrm{ij}}$ is an estimate of the importance weight for given attribute i of the brand j of the consumers, using nationally representative sample data.

The modification of the original Fishbein multi-attribute attitude model is implied by the necessity to quantify the components of the customer attitudes, i.e., the importance weight of each attribute and the consumers’ beliefs, using data from a nationally representative survey.

By the term ‘brand’ in our case, we refer to the specific features of Bulgarian domestic leisure tourism—the advantages of winter (ski) leisure tourism, the advantages of summer (sea) leisure tourism, the disadvantages of winter (ski) leisure tourism, or the disadvantages of summer (sea) leisure tourism.

${\widehat{\beta }}_{\mathrm{ij}}$ is an estimate of the consumers’ belief regarding the extent to which brand j possesses attribute i, using nationally representative sample data.

As stated above, the estimation process of the customers’ attitudes is based on a national representative sample. The latter is executed in the form of a two-staged clustered sample using a double stratification—by the type of residence place (district-center city, small town, and village) and by the NUTS3 Bulgarian territorial sub-divisions called ‘obasti’, which are 28 in total. The clusters in the first stage are randomly chosen Bulgarian election areas, and the randomly selected households form the units in the second stage of the sampling process.

By interviewing all the 18+ members of the selected households face-to-face in the selected election areas in 2023, the data collection process yielded a nationally representative sample with the size of 1003 successfully interviewed respondents. The survey questionnaire that has been used consists of six sections of survey questions that include collecting respondents’ opinions on a great variety of topics concerning Bulgarian domestic leisure tourism, such as general practices for leisure tourism, practices for winter leisure tourism, practices for summer leisure tourism, demographic characteristics of the respondents, and others. At the beginning of the survey questionnaire, the respondents have given informed consent to participate in the survey, in which the personal data are not collected, the survey data are strictly confidential, the individual data are fully anonymous, and the results of the study shall be used only in a summarized form. The administration of the survey process is done by the data collection company and by the researchers who are responsible for the reliability of the data collection process.

The profile of survey respondents can be summarized as follows (

Table 1. Survey respondents’ profile.

Characteristic	Value	Share (%)
Gender	Female	52.7
	Male	47.3
Age	18–24	6.5
	25–34	13.9
	35–44	16.8
	45–54	20.1
	55–64	20.6
	65+	22.0
Education	Primary or lower	4.7
	Secondary	58.8
	Higher	36.5
Residence place	Capital	20.7
	District city	34.7
	Other town	19.3
	Rural	25.2

Source: national representative survey data.

):

The representative sample, used for survey purposes, fully reflects the structure of the Bulgarian population characteristics.

To estimate the Bulgarian customers’ attitudes toward domestic leisure tourism characteristics, we have used eight questions from the survey questionnaire, described in the following table (

Table 2. Survey questions used for the estimation process.

Code	Question	Measurement Scale
Q6	In your opinion, what are the main advantages of the Bulgarian winter (ski) leisure tourism?	Nominal
Q7	To what extent do you agree with the following statements about the winter (ski) leisure tourism in Bulgaria, on a scale from 1—I completely disagree to 7—I completely agree? 1. Availability of favorable natural conditions for ski (winter) leisure tourism 2. Availability of prerequisites for practicing extreme mountain sports 3. Relatively well-developed tourist base—presence of high-class hotels, holiday villages which are reconstructed, modernized, new infrastructure, etc. 4. Availability of new and reconstructed facilities for artificial snow, lifts, tows, and other winter sports facilities 5. Availability of a high degree of security and safety	Ordinal
Q8	In your opinion, what are the main disadvantages of the Bulgarian winter (ski) leisure tourism?	Nominal
Q9	To what extent do the following specific features apply to the winter (ski) leisure tourism in Bulgaria, on a scale from 1—does not apply at all to 7—completely applies? 1. Lack of sufficient natural snow in the active (winter) season 2. Insufficiently good tourist services 3. Overbuilding of mountain resorts 4. Focusing mainly on the foreign tourists	Ordinal
Q15	In your opinion, what are the main advantages of the Bulgarian summer (sea) leisure tourism?	Nominal
Q16	To what extent do you agree with the following statements about the summer (sea) leisure tourism in Bulgaria (holidays on the Black Sea coast), on a scale from 1—I completely disagree to 7—I completely agree? 1. Availability of favorable natural conditions for sea (summer) leisure tourism 2. Availability of a good ratio between price and quality of the offered tourist goods and services 3. Availability of possibilities to combine with balneology, spa, and wellness tourism 4. Relatively well-developed tourist base—presence of high-class hotels 5. Availability of a high degree of security and safety	Ordinal
Q17	In your opinion, what are the main disadvantages of the Bulgarian summer (sea) leisure tourism?	Nominal
Q18	To what extent do the following specific features apply to summer (sea) leisure tourism in Bulgaria (holidays on the Black Sea coast) on a scale from 1—does not apply at all to 7—completely applies? 1. Overbuilding and over-urbanization of coastal areas 2. Pollution of marine waters 3. Neglect of domestic (Bulgarian) tourists 4. Insufficient and not very well-maintained infrastructure	Ordinal

):

To estimate the importance weight (${\widehat{\mathrm{I}}}_{\mathrm{ij}}$) for the given attribute i of the brand j of the consumers’ attitudes, we have used the frequency distribution of the answers of the respondents for each of the questions Q6, Q8, Q15, and Q17. The answers with the highest share size (highest relative frequency) received the highest weight value, and the answers with the smallest share size received lower weights. The magnitude of a given weight of a given attribute depends on the number of items in the interconnected questions Q7, Q9, Q16, and Q18. For example, Q7 includes five statements. Therefore, the top five answers from the interconnected question Q6 receive weights in the range of 5 for the answer the highest share, 4 for the answer mentioned at the second place, 3 for the answer mentioned at the third place, 2 for the answer mentioned at the fourth place, and 1 for the answer mentioned at the last fifth place. For questions with four statements (such as Q9), the weights will be 4 for the answer with the highest share, 3 for the answer mentioned in the second place, 2 for the answer mentioned in the third place, and 1 for the answer mentioned in the fourth place.

Here, it should be noted that the reliability of the instrument (items and scales) has been diagnosed using Cronbach’s Alpha test. The results showed high levels of reliability as follows: Q7 (α = 0.872), Q9 (α = 0.846), Q16 (α = 0.805), and Q18 (α = 0.876).

For the estimation of the consumers’ beliefs (${\widehat{\beta }}_{\mathrm{ij}}$) regarding the extent to which brand j possesses attribute i, we have used the average value for each statement in questions Q7, Q9, Q16, and Q18, which was calculated as the mean of the answers of the respondents for this statement as follows:

$${\widehat{\beta }}_{\mathrm{ij}}={\displaystyle \frac{{\sum }_{\mathrm{h}=1}^{\mathrm{n}}{\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{ijh}}}{\mathrm{n}}},$$

(3)

where

${\mathrm{x}}_{\mathrm{ijh}}$ is the answer of respondent h regarding the extent to which brand j possesses attribute i, i.e., to a given statement, measured on the ordinal scale from 1 to 7.

n is the number of respondents for a given statement.

Based on the combinations of the values of the attribute importance weight estimation (${\widehat{\mathrm{I}}}_{\mathrm{ij}}$) and the consumers’ belief estimation (${\widehat{\beta }}_{\mathrm{ij}}$), the following ranges of customers’ attitude estimates (${\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_{\mathrm{j}}$) are possible:

For the five-attribute estimations:

$$\begin{gathered} {\min (\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_{\mathrm{j}})=1\times 5+1\times 4+1\times 3+1\times 2+1\times 1=15 \\ {\max (\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_{\mathrm{j}})=7\times 5+7\times 4+7\times 3+7\times 2+7\times 1=105 \end{gathered}$$

The midpoint of the range equals: (15 + 105)/2 = 60.

For the four-attribute estimations:

$$\begin{gathered} {\min (\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_{\mathrm{j}})=1\times 4+1\times 3+1\times 2+1\times 1=10 \\ {\max (\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_{\mathrm{j}})=7\times 4+7\times 3+7\times 2+7\times 1=70 \end{gathered}$$

The midpoint of the range equals (10 + 70)/2 = 40.

In order to estimate the particular consumers’ attitudes, the modified version of the Fishbein model is applied using the following steps:

Step 1: Estimation of the importance weights using frequency distributions—the distributions are based on the individual answers of the respondents for each of the open-ended questions Q6, Q8, Q15, and Q17 (see Table 2). The answer with the highest relative frequency receives the highest weight value, and the answers with smaller shares receive lower weights. The magnitude of a given weight of a given attribute depends on the number of items in the interconnected questions.

Step 2: Estimation of the consumers’ beliefs towards given attitudes using the mean of the individual answers of the respondents for each statement regarding the extent to which a given brand possesses a given attribute. The estimation is based on the answers to questions Q7, Q9, Q16, and Q18 (see Table 2).

Step 3: estimation of the particular consumers’ attitude score for a given brand by the summarization of the products of the importance weight and its belief magnitude for each attribute.

For calculation and estimation purposes, we have used Microsoft Excel and IBM SPSS Statistics ver. 29.

5. Results

5.1. Attitudes to the Advantages of the Bulgarian Winter Domestic Leisure Tourism

As was presented in the methodological section of the article, one possible way of quantifying the consumers’ attitudes toward the Bulgarian winter (ski) and the summer (sea) domestic leisure tourism and its specific features could be the usage of a modification of the Fishbein multi-attribute attitude model based on data from a nationally representative survey.

Summarizing the answers of the respondents to the open-ended question Q6 shows that the main advantages of winter (ski) domestic leisure tourism in Bulgaria are the availability of favorable natural conditions for ski (winter) leisure tourism (45.9%), the availability of prerequisites for practicing extreme mountain sports (18.5%), the relatively well-developed tourist base (13.9%), the availability of new and reconstructed facilities for artificial snow, lifts, tows and other winter sports facilities (13.0%), and the availability of a high degree of security and safety (11.3%).

Using the relative frequency distribution by question Q6 for the estimation of the importance weight (5—most important to 1—least important) for each attribute and the average value for each statement (item) in question Q7 to estimate the magnitude of belief for each attribute (1—I completely disagree to 7—I completely agree), we obtained the following results for consumers’ attitudes toward the advantages of the Bulgarian winter domestic leisure tourism (

Table 3. Consumers’ attitudes toward Bulgarian winter (ski) domestic leisure tourism advantages.

Attribute	Importance Weight (${\widehat{\mathbf{I}}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$)	Belief (${\widehat{\mathsf{\beta }}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$)	${\widehat{\mathsf{\beta }}}_{\mathbf{ij}}.{\widehat{\mathbf{I}}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$
Availability of favorable natural conditions for ski (winter) leisure tourism	5	6.1	30.5
Availability of prerequisites for practicing extreme mountain sports	4	5.6	16.8
Relatively well-developed tourist base—presence of high-class hotels, holiday villages which are reconstructed, modernized, new infrastructure, etc.	3	5.6	11.2
Availability of new and reconstructed facilities for artificial snow, lifts, tows, and other winter sports facilities	2	5.6	22.4
Availability of a high degree of security and safety	1	5.2	5.2
		Total (${\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_1$)	86.1

Source: national representative survey data and authors’ calculations.

):

The customers’ attitude toward the advantages of the Bulgarian winter (ski) domestic leisure tourism shows a relatively higher level (86.1) compared to the midpoint of the interval (60.0) and also to its highest point (105.0).

Potential explanatory factors that could influence the customers’ attitude toward the advantages of the Bulgarian winter (ski) domestic leisure tourism could be mentioned: the age of the respondents, the household size, the previous experiences at the winter resorts, etc.

5.2. Attitudes to the Advantages of the Bulgarian Summer Domestic Leisure Tourism

The generalization of the individual answers to the open-ended question Q15 shows that the main advantages of the summer (sea) domestic leisure tourism in Bulgaria are the availability of favorable natural conditions for sea (summer) leisure tourism (61.4%), the availability of a good ratio between price and quality of the offered tourist goods and services (11.7%), the availability of possibilities to combine with balneology, spa and wellness tourism (10.4%), the relatively well-developed tourist base—the presence of high-class hotels (6.6%)—and the availability of a high degree of security and safety (5.7%).

In order to make a comparison between Bulgaria’s winter and summer domestic leisure tourism, we have calculated customers’ attitudes toward the advantages of tourism using data for questions Q15 (for the estimation of ${\widehat{\mathrm{I}}}_{\mathrm{ij}}$) and Q16 (for the estimation of ${\widehat{\beta }}_{\mathrm{ij}}$), and the results are presented as follows (

Table 4. Consumers’ attitudes toward Bulgarian summer (sea) domestic leisure tourism advantages.

Attribute	Importance Weight (${\widehat{\mathbf{I}}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$)	Belief (${\widehat{\mathsf{\beta }}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$)	${\widehat{\mathsf{\beta }}}_{\mathbf{ij}}.{\widehat{\mathbf{I}}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$
Availability of favorable natural conditions for sea (summer) leisure tourism	5	6.2	31.0
Availability of a good ratio between price and quality of the offered tourist goods and services	4	4.7	18.8
Availability of possibilities to combine with balneology, spa, and wellness tourism	3	6.1	18.3
Relatively well-developed tourist base—presence of high-class hotels	2	5.8	11.6
Availability of a high degree of security and safety	1	5.1	5.1
		Total (${\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_2$)	84.8

Source: national representative survey data and authors’ calculations.

):

As can be seen in Table 4, the customers’ attitudes toward the advantages of Bulgarian summer domestic leisure tourism are also relatively high (84.8), although it is marginally lower than the customers’ overall attitudes toward the advantages of winter tourisn.

The stage of life advancement of the respondents, their income, and household size could be significant factors that form the customers’ attitudes toward the advantages of Bulgarian summer domestic leisure tourism.

5.3. Attitudes to the Disadvantages of the Bulgarian Winter Domestic Leisure Tourism

Similarly, we have estimated the consumers’ attitudes toward the disadvantages of Bulgarian domestic winter leisure tourism and summer one.

Summarizing the answers of the respondents to the open-ended question Q8 shows that the main disadvantages of the winter (ski) domestic leisure tourism in Bulgaria are the lack of sufficient natural snow in the active (winter) season (48.5%), the insufficiently good tourist services (11.7%), overbuilding of mountain resorts (10.8%), and focusing mainly on foreign tourists (8.5%).

For the estimation of the consumers’ attitudes toward the disadvantages of Bulgarian winter domestic leisure tourism, we have used the data from the national representative survey for questions Q8 (for the estimation of ${\widehat{\mathrm{I}}}_{\mathrm{ij}}$) and Q9 (for the estimation of ${\widehat{\beta }}_{\mathrm{ij}}$), resulting in the following table (

Table 5. Consumers’ attitudes toward Bulgarian winter (ski) domestic leisure tourism disadvantages.

Attribute	Importance Weight (${\widehat{\mathbf{I}}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$)	Belief (${\widehat{\mathsf{\beta }}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$)	${\widehat{\mathsf{\beta }}}_{\mathbf{ij}}.{\widehat{\mathbf{I}}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$
Lack of sufficient natural snow in the active (winter) season	4	4.4	17.6
Insufficiently good tourist services	3	4.0	12.0
Overbuilding of mountain resorts	2	5.0	10.0
Focusing mainly on foreign tourists	1	4.9	4.9
		Total (${\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_3$)	44.5

Source: national representative survey data and authors’ calculations.

):

The estimation results, presented in Table 5, show that the consumers’ attitudes toward Bulgarian winter (ski) domestic leisure tourism disadvantages are relatively ‘passionless’ (44.5) and gravitate closely to the midpoint of the interval (40.0). Factors such as the educational level of the respondents, the income interval group, and the presence of children in the household could explain a large share of the consumers’ attitudes toward Bulgarian winter (ski) domestic leisure tourism disadvantages.

5.4. Attitudes to the Disadvantages of Bulgarian Summer Domestic Leisure Tourism

The frequency distribution of the individual answers to the open-ended question Q17 shows that the main disadvantages of the summer (sea) domestic leisure tourism in Bulgaria are the overbuilding and over-urbanization of coastal areas (27.4%), the pollution of marine waters (13.2%), neglect of domestic (Bulgarian) tourists (12.9%) and the insufficient and not very well-maintained infrastructure (6.4%).

By the usage of the data for questions Q17 (for the estimation of ${\widehat{\mathrm{I}}}_{\mathrm{ij}}$) and Q18 (for the estimation of ${\widehat{\beta }}_{\mathrm{ij}}$), we obtained the following estimate for the consumers’ attitudes toward the Bulgarian summer (sea) domestic leisure tourism disadvantages (

Table 6. Consumers’ attitudes toward Bulgarian summer (sea) domestic leisure tourism disadvantages.

Attribute	Importance Weight (${\widehat{\mathbf{I}}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$)	Belief (${\widehat{\mathsf{\beta }}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$)	${\widehat{\mathsf{\beta }}}_{\mathbf{ij}}.{\widehat{\mathbf{I}}}_{\mathbf{ij}}$
Overbuilding and over-urbanization of coastal areas	4	5.9	23.6
Pollution of marine waters	3	5.2	15.6
Neglect of domestic (Bulgarian) tourists	2	4.8	9.6
Insufficient and not very well-maintained infrastructure	1	4.7	4.7
		Total (${\widehat{\mathrm{A}}}_4$)	53.5

Source: national representative survey data and authors’ calculations.

):

It is evident from the results in Table 6 that Bulgarian consumers are rather more annoyed (53.5) by the disadvantages of the Bulgarian summer (sea) domestic leisure tourism in comparison, not only to the midpoint of the range but also as opposed to the winter domestic leisure tourism disadvantages.

These attitudes towards the disadvantages could be a result of the influence of a large number of socioeconomic factors such as the age group of the respondent (consumer), the household size and structure, the educational level, etc.

It can be concluded that Bulgarian customers are more attracted to the positive features of domestic winter leisure tourism and more bothered by the downsides of summer domestic leisure tourism.

6. Discussion and Conclusions

6.1. Overview

Analyzing the attributes of the advantages and disadvantages of tourism destinations plays a crucial role in creating adequate marketing strategies for an optimal destination image. In the scientific literature, there are many studies on the topic using the Fishbein multi-attribute model in tourism for these purposes, but two main aspects have to be considered when discussing them: the type of tourists (international or domestic) they analyze and the specific attributes that they discuss. Most of the research papers analyze the attitude to international tourism, mostly the incoming and not the domestic. Rishi et al. (2013) analyze the Incredible India campaign to promote India as a tourism destination. Similar to the present study, the authors use a questionnaire to measure the attitude of the tourists and calculate and analyze the mean overall attitude of the incoming tourists. But unlike this study, they analyze inbound tourism, distributing the questionnaire to foreign tourists visiting India. Amanah et al. (2018) also measure tourism attitudes in Medan, Indonesia. They analyze 10 specific attributes that are related to the development of the destination. They present their results in a research model showing the used attributes, but like Rishi et al. (2013), they focus their attention on the inbound tourists visiting tourist attractions in Medan. The tourism destination attractiveness through the application of the Fishbein model is also evident in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Morachat (2003) studies the opinion of foreign tourists about eight attributes of this destination, analyzes the answers by nationality and age, and also focuses on inbound tourists. All these studies contribute to the research of consumers’ attitudes to tourism, but their specific target groups differ from those of the present study and make it difficult to compare.

Although there is a lack of nationally representative surveys on attitudes towards winter and summer domestic leisure tourism based on the Fishbein model, there are some studies that highlight the importance of this model for examining tourist attitudes towards certain elements of domestic tourism. A focus on this type of tourism using the Fishbein model on the variety of resources available and infrastructure at the destination is provided by Aziz (2002). The author analyzes the attitude of domestic tourists towards historical attractions, shopping complexes, beaches, theme parks, sports and special events, nature and outdoor, agriculture tourism, and holiday resorts in Langkawi Island, Malaysia, to assess the attractiveness and the relative importance of each of them for the domestic visitors. The research shows that the beach is the most important attraction for the respondents. Similar to the results of Aziz’s study (Aziz, 2002), the present research calculations show that the customers’ attitude toward the availability of favorable natural conditions for sea (summer) leisure tourism (including beaches) as an advantage is with the highest score for domestic tourists in Bulgaria. The country has long traditions in summer sea tourism because of its Black Sea coastline and numerous sandy beaches, and this result is expected. In the context of Bulgaria as a tourism destination, there are only a few studies on the attributes influencing its choice by tourists. Stefanova’s (2022) research on tourism on the Bulgarian South Black Sea coast shows that the attributes “Natural and climatic features” and “Possibility for healing procedures” have the highest effect on the choice of the destination for summer sea tourism. The results partially confirm the scores of the study, where “Availability of favorable natural conditions for sea (summer) leisure tourism” occupies the first place and “Availability of possibilities to combine with balneology, spa and wellness tourism” is in third place, with a very small difference from the second. The results could not be compared completely because Stefanova (2022) did her research on domestic and inbound tourists, and the present research focuses only on domestic visitors. Similar studies on winter tourism have not been found.

Regarding the specific attributes that are discussed, it is difficult to compare the researched attributes from different studies. Some of them focus on different natural and/or anthropogenic resources, others on advantages of the analyzed destinations, type of tourism, or specific events effects like the COVID-19 pandemic challenges. For example, Zakaria and Aziz (2018) conducted a similar study to the present study in Kuala Selangor, Malaysia, but the results could not be compared with those of summer and winter domestic tourism because they focused on cultural sites in the destination. The effect of COVID-19 on the attitudes of Turkish domestic tourists is discussed by Binbaşioğlu (2022). However, the author analyzes the quality/price ratio perceived by the consumers and not the typical characteristics of the destination.

In the discussion, some unexpected results of the national representative research must be considered, although they could not be compared with other studies. From the analyzed attributes of the advantages of summer and winter domestic tourism, there is an unexpectedly low result of the “Availability of a high degree of security and safety”. This score is received, maybe because of the lack of challenges regarding these aspects of the destination, Bulgaria, and not because the domestic tourists see any problems there. The country is peaceful and without big security and safety issues, and the domestic tourists do not focus their attention so much on this attribute, both for summer and winter leisure tourism.

6.2. Theoretical Contributions

This article is one of the few scientific studies dedicated to the attitudes of domestic tourists in Eastern Europe. As demonstrated in the literature review, this issue is significantly more researched in Asia and much less in Europe. The destinations in Eastern Europe remain largely under-researched. In addition to filling the research gap from a geographical perspective, the article also contributes to the study of attitudes toward the disadvantages of destinations. Most articles focus on attitudes towards various characteristics of the tourism product or the destination, but do not examine and analyze attitudes towards the disadvantages of destinations. The in-depth analysis of the advantages and disadvantages of a given country for the practice of domestic tourism and the study of the attitudes of the local population towards the attractiveness of their own country as a tourist destination makes it possible to discover techniques for overcoming the missed benefits.

The existing literature reveals a lack of sufficient studies focusing on domestic consumers’ preferences and factors that influence their decisions (Naumov et al., 2024). There is also a scarcity of nationally representative studies (Bayih & Singh, 2020; Varadzhakova & Naydenov, 2024). The present paper addresses both the literature gaps using data from nationally representative research and presents an in-depth analysis of a given destination.

Also, the present study shows how the Fishbein multi-attribute model formula could be modified to be applied to data from nationally representative surveys. A three-step algorithm to apply the Fishbein multi-attribute model in this case is proposed in the Methods and Materials section. The modified version consists of estimating the particular consumers’ attitude score for a given brand by the estimation of the importance weights using frequency distributions and the estimation of the consumers’ beliefs towards given attitudes using the mean of the individual answers of a sample survey respondents for each statement, regarding the extent to which given brand possesses given attribute.

6.3. Practical Implications

Comparing winter ski tourism with summer sea tourism provides a valuable foundation for developing a national marketing strategy aimed at enhancing domestic tourism in countries with resources suitable for both types. Analyzing individual destination attributes—both advantages and disadvantages—supports the formulation of targeted promotional strategies to improve the destination’s image and mitigate negative perceptions.

Conducting the first nationally representative study on the perceived advantages and disadvantages of domestic tourism destinations for scientific purposes offers a detailed view of the priorities that policymakers must address. This method of analyzing tourist attitudes enables the creation of informed policies to enhance the destination’s image. Such research has strong practical applications, assisting decision-makers—including marketing organizations, destination management organizations (DMOs), and governmental bodies—in prioritizing key tasks.

The present study highlights the need to focus not only on underwhelming attributes but also on those that actively disappoint tourists. This is particularly relevant when a destination suffers from a negative public image.

Based on the results, several marketing strategies are recommended to address critical shortcomings. First, a targeted list of marketing actions should be developed, informed by the attributes with the lowest satisfaction scores. For winter tourism, a significant concern is the insufficient snowfall in Bulgarian ski resorts over extended periods. Addressing this should be a priority for local authorities, stakeholders, and policymakers through investments in artificial snow-making technologies and the development of alternative tourism products to extend the active season.

Second, positive attitudes toward summer tourism indicate that domestic tourists highly value the ability to combine sea holidays with balneology, spa, and wellness tourism. Since such offerings are also available in Bulgaria’s ski resorts, they should be actively promoted during the low winter season or outside the core skiing period.

Third, further, the poor quality of tourist services and the overemphasis on foreign tourists in winter resorts—and the neglect of domestic tourists in summer resorts—must be addressed through improved training for staff in hotels, restaurants, and entertainment services. In such cases, local entrepreneurs have a crucial role to play.

Overall, overdevelopment in both summer and winter resorts presents a significant challenge for urban planners, local municipalities, and national authorities responsible for spatial planning. These issues must be integrated into a comprehensive national strategy aimed at improving domestic tourists’ perceptions and experiences.

6.4. Limitations and Further Research

Although the present research shows an interesting approach to the rating of the advantages and disadvantages of the main attributes of domestic tourists’ attitudes to a tourism destination, there are also limitations that could be drawn.

Considering the main advantage of the present study, the sampling data is based on a nationally representative study; due to the limited resources of the research project, the sample size is not enough to deepen the analysis on a regional level. The fact that the research represents the data only from one destination (Bulgaria) can be considered a drawback, too. The usage of the two-stage clustered sampling has some limitations that should be considered, too, due to the possible intra-cluster homogeneity that could lead to an increased sampling error. If the initial selection of clusters is not truly random or if the chosen clusters are not representative of the broader population, this can introduce significant bias. Also, if the list of clusters or the list of individuals within clusters is outdated, it can lead to selection bias by excluding certain segments of the population. Here, it should be noted that analyzing data from clustered samples is far more complex than from simple random samples. Standard statistical methods often assume independent observations, which is usually violated in clustered data. Specialized statistical techniques are needed to account for the intra-cluster correlation; otherwise, the standard errors will be underestimated, leading to incorrect inferences. Despite the potential biases and limitations of the two-stage cluster sampling, it remains one of the most practical and cost-effective methods for large-scale studies, especially when logistical constraints make other methods impractical.

There are also some methodological considerations in the process of applying the Fishbein. Some biases can be found in the measurement of the constructs within Fishbein’s models, potentially affecting the accuracy of predictions, especially due to the social desirability bias, acquiescence bias, context effects, recall bias, interviewer bias, etc. Those models often rely on calculating a weighted sum of beliefs and evaluations (for attitudes) and normative beliefs and motivation to comply (for subjective norm), and, therefore, some of the following constraints should be considered: assumption of equal intervals, limited mathematical operations with ordinal data, interpretation of aggregate scores, etc. The generalizability and representativeness of findings from studies using the Fishbein models are heavily influenced by the sampling methods employed, including sample size, sampling frame, cultural and contextual limitations, temporal instability, etc. Considering the potential biases and limitations, researchers should design more rigorous studies and interpret their findings with greater caution when applying the Fishbein model.

Also, in the scientific literature on tourism, surveys are usually among a limited number of representatives from a specific target group, and these are usually non-representative. Therefore, a limitation could be defined as the lack of enough studies on the attitudes of domestic tourists based on national representative surveys and the application of the Fishbein multi-attribute model to evaluate them. Also, the differences in the characteristics of the destinations that have been analyzed in the literature make their comparison difficult. The research gap indicated in the literature review regarding the lack of studies on the disadvantages of the destinations makes comparative analysis in this direction impossible.

Although it is difficult to compare the results obtained, some general conclusions can be drawn and become a basis for future research. The analyzed studies show that in summer sea leisure tourism, the attribute that is of the greatest importance is related to the natural resources of the destination and, more precisely, the beaches. Regarding winter ski tourism, no similar studies have been found, as well as those that compare summer and winter tourism within the same destination. Also, the application of the Fishbein multi-attribute attitude model to examine the weight of the disadvantages of a tourism destination has not been found. For this reason, the present study provides an idea for future research into the negative characteristics of tourist destinations that have a negative image among the local population. Also, subsequent analysis of the cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements of the attitudes would improve and deepen practical implications and contributions.