Advancing Self-Social Engineering in Tourism-Related Environmental Management: Integrating Environmental Psychology, Planned Behavior, and Norm Activation Theories

Abstract

This study aims to develop the concept of self-social engineering in the context of tourism, focusing on tourists’ pro-environmental behavior. By integrating psychological theories such as Environmental Psychology Theory, the Theory of Planned Behavior, and Norm Activation Theory, the purpose of the investigation was to determine the extent of the direct influence of independent variables of perceived environmental quality (PEQ), attitude, subjective norm (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC) on self-social engineering (SSE) and their indirect influence through intention to engage in environmentally responsible behavior (ERB). The structural analysis results from a sample of 191 visitors indicated that the unified model demonstrates a satisfactory predictive capability for SSE. This study’s findings highlight significant and insignificant relationships among the research variables, providing insights into the dynamics of pro-environmental behavior. Significant positive relationships were observed between attitude and SSE and between SN and SSE, demonstrating the influence of individual attitudes and social pressures on fostering self-initiated environmental actions. Similarly, PBC was found to significantly impact both SSE and ERB, indicating that individuals who feel capable of taking environmental actions are more likely to do so. Conversely, some relationships were found to be insignificant. The relationship between PEQ and SSE was insignificant, suggesting that positive perceptions of environmental quality alone may not motivate individuals to engage in self-directed environmental behaviors. Additionally, PEQ showed a negative relationship with ERB, indicating that high environmental quality perceptions might reduce the urgency to act, potentially leading to complacency. These findings highlight pro-environmental behavior’s complex and context-dependent characteristics, underscoring the importance of adopting integrated approaches considering individual and situational factors. The limitations of this study include its cross-sectional design, which restricts the ability to analyze behavioral changes over time. Additionally, its relatively localized sample does not fully capture broader tourist populations’ diverse demographic and geographical contexts.

1. Introduction

Tourism has become a key driver of economic development for many regions (Erul et al., 2023; León-Gómez et al., 2021). This includes South Borneo, one of the provinces of Indonesia. Tourism plays a significant role in the Indonesian economy, contributing significantly to national economic growth in 2022, reaching 5.31% and 4.1% of the Gross Domestic Product Value (Hendriyani, 2023). Tourism foreign exchange increased drastically from USD 0.52 billion in 2021 to USD 4.26 billion in 2022 (Hendriyani, 2023).

However, tourism growth often comes with significant environmental challenges, particularly waste management. According to the National Waste Management Information System, South Borneo generated 803,794.32 tons of waste in 2023 (Soelaiman, 2024). This alarming figure highlights the urgent need for effective waste management strategies in regional tourist destinations. One of the South Borneo tourist destinations is Batakan Baru Beach. The beach has experienced a decline in visitors since 2019, primarily attributed to persistent waste management issues. In response to this challenge, various environmentally conscious groups, including law enforcement agencies, have initiated clean-up efforts to restore the beach’s appeal and address the growing waste problem. Addressing this issue requires more than policy initiatives; it necessitates a fundamental shift in public behavior and engagement with environmental practices.

Behavioral theories have been widely employed to understand and promote environmentally responsible behaviors in various contexts, including waste management. The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) by Ajzen (1991) has been extensively applied to predict recycling behaviors and pro-environmental actions across diverse settings (Babazadeh et al., 2023; Tonglet et al., 2004; Wu et al., 2022). For instance, studies have shown that attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms significantly predict recycling and waste management behaviors (Hasan et al., 2020; Heidari et al., 2018). Furthermore, personal norms derived from the Norm Activation Theory (NAT) have been recognized as critical drivers of pro-environmental actions. Research by Harland et al. (1999) and de Leeuw et al. (2015) highlights the role of moral obligations in fostering sustainable waste practices.

Waste management as a research focus is particularly compelling because it emphasizes direct, practical actions that connect individual behaviors with immediate and visible environmental outcomes. Unlike broader ecological topics like energy use or pollution, which often center on systemic change or long-term strategies, waste management requires tangible interventions, such as sorting, recycling, and reducing waste at the source. This hands-on engagement reflects a unique intersection of personal responsibility and collective impact, making it particularly relevant for theories like Environmental Psychology, which explore the connection between behavior and environmental settings. This perspective is critical in areas like South Borneo, where ecotourism development depends on effective waste management to maintain natural ecosystems and foster sustainable community practices.

In Environmental Psychology, waste management involves direct interactions with physical materials, fostering a closer relationship between individual actions and environmental outcomes (Koger, 2011). The Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) further differentiates waste management by emphasizing perceived behavioral control, as specific behaviors like recycling or composting depend heavily on access to infrastructure and practical skills (Ajzen, 1991). Norm Activation Theory (NAT) underscores the personal moral dimension of waste management, where awareness of the consequences of improper waste disposal activates feelings of responsibility, often reinforced by community norms (Schwartz, 1977). Unlike broader ecological behaviors, waste management directly ties individual and collective actions to visible environmental improvements, making it a distinct and vital area for theoretical exploration.

Although these theories have been individually explored, their combined application to multifaceted environmental challenges in tourism remains underutilized. Integrating TPB, NAT, and Environmental Psychology offers a more comprehensive framework for understanding and promoting pro-environmental behaviors in contexts like Batakan Baru Beach.

1.1. Theoretical Framework

Environmental psychology in waste management focuses on understanding the psychological and behavioral factors influencing waste sorting, recycling, and sustainable waste disposal practices. For example, Jiang et al. (2020) examined the impact of psychological factors, such as guilt and the anticipation of social rewards, on residents’ low-carbon consumption behaviors, thereby enriching the understanding of waste management practices. Lou et al. (2024) extended this investigation by employing the expanded Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to explore further the behavioral drivers of low-carbon practices in waste management.

Another study applied a socio-psychological framework that combined personal norms and TPB to predict waste management behavior (Wu et al., 2022). It was found that personal norms, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control strongly influenced pro-environmental actions like recycling.

The TPB has been extensively (e.g., Babazadeh et al., 2023; Hasan et al., 2020; Tonglet et al., 2004; Wu et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2023) applied to explore pro-environmental behaviors. These studies demonstrate its use in various contexts, such as predicting recycling behaviors in households and educational settings, addressing waste separation in Iran, and examining pharmaceutical waste recycling in China.

Frequent research integrating the TPB examines how attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control influence intentions and actual waste management behaviors. Earlier studies, such as those by Guagnano et al. (1995) and Dietz et al. (2002), have demonstrated the utility of the TPB in understanding recycling behaviors. These studies identified that attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms are critical factors in shaping intentions to manage waste effectively. Further studies have also demonstrated the efficacy of TPB in predicting recycling behaviors and reducing plastic usage (e.g., Hasan et al., 2020; Heidari et al., 2018; Tonglet et al., 2004; Wu et al., 2022).

Recent studies on waste management using TPB have explored various aspects of sustainable waste practices and behavioral intentions across diverse contexts. For instance, studies have applied TPB to predict household recycling behaviors, such as pharmaceutical waste recycling in China (Xu et al., 2023). Research in Iran also applied TPB to explore waste separation behaviors, demonstrating the theory’s efficacy in understanding pro-environmental behavior in different cultural settings (Babazadeh et al., 2023). These investigations demonstrate TPB’s versatility in explaining and promoting responsible waste management practices in many countries and cultures.

In addition, integrating personal norms from the Norm Activation Theory (NAT) has been instrumental in understanding moral obligations and their role in fostering pro-environmental actions (e.g., Harland et al., 1999). This perspective, often linked to altruistic behaviors, highlights the significance of personal responsibility in shaping waste management practices. For instance, de Leeuw et al. (2015) applied NAT alongside TPB to identify key beliefs and norms driving pro-environmental actions in educational settings, which has important implications for developing interventions to promote sustainable behavior.

Recent studies on waste management have increasingly utilized NAT to better understand pro-environmental behaviors, such as waste sorting. For example, a study by Setiawan et al. (2021) demonstrated that subjective and personal norms significantly influenced waste sorting behavior without relying on intention, suggesting that internalized norms can powerfully drive pro-environmental actions. Another study by Oh and Ki in 2023 extended the application of NAT by exploring how individuals’ awareness of environmental consequences influenced their support for environmentally responsible organizations, further highlighting the relevance of NAT in waste management and broader environmental responsibility contexts. The studies indicated that targeting normative beliefs could be a more effective strategy for encouraging responsible waste management than focusing solely on intentions or attitudes (Oh & Ki, 2023; Setiawan et al., 2021). The theoretical foundation for perceived environmental quality, attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control as key determinants of environmentally responsible behavior appears well-established and coherent (e.g., J. Liu et al., 2019).

Another study examined pro-environmental behavior using the TPB and Stern’s Value–Belief–Norm (VBN) Model, showing that personal moral norms significantly drive recycling and other waste management activities (Z. Liu et al., 2022). Investigations utilizing Environmental Psychology and related theories explore how psychological and social factors influence pro-environmental actions. For instance, Gkargkavouzi et al. (2019) integrated TPB with the VBN, emphasizing the role of self-identity and habit in shaping environmental behavior in private settings, and Adjei et al. (2023) employed NAT, which examines personal norms and awareness of consequences. Gkargkavouzi et al. conducted their research in Greece, focusing on general environmental behaviors in the European context, while Adjei focused on waste management behavior in Ghana, providing insight into waste management in a developing country. These studies highlight the complex interplay between cognitive, normative, and control beliefs in promoting sustainable waste management. They underscore the importance of integrating psychological theories to develop more effective waste management strategies.

Integrating environmental psychology, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), and Norm Activation Theory (NAT) to promote environmentally responsible behavior in tourism contexts has been notably underexplored. While existing studies (e.g., Setiawan et al., 2021; Wu et al., 2022; Xu et al., 2023) often apply these theories independently, their combined potential to address multifaceted environmental challenges in tourism remains largely untapped. This gap underscores the need for a more holistic approach that leverages the strengths of these frameworks to foster sustainable practices in tourism settings.

To address this gap, the current study applies these integrated theoretical frameworks to develop community-driven strategies for reducing waste and enhancing environmental stewardship in South Borneo. Combining insights from Environmental Psychology, TPB, and NAT, this approach aims to cultivate intrinsic motivation for pro-environmental behavior, offering a novel, multidisciplinary solution to persistent environmental issues in the region’s tourism sector.

We follow Wilson’s (1999) idea of consilience, which is particularly relevant in advancing this integrated framework because it encourages the breakdown of disciplinary silos, allowing for a holistic understanding of how human behavior interacts with environmental systems. For instance, environmental psychology’s focus on the individual’s interaction with the physical environment complements TPB, which focuses on social and cognitive factors, while Norm Activation Theory bridges the moral dimension of behavior. Together, these theories provide a multi-faceted view of how individuals can be motivated to engage in pro-environmental behavior in tourist destinations like South Borneo.

We propose the concept of “self-social engineering” (SSE) in the context of tourism environmental management. Self-social engineering involves individuals taking active roles in reshaping their behavior and the behavior of others within their social networks to promote sustainable environmental practices. The consilient approach strengthens the foundation of SSE by drawing on psychological, behavioral, and moral insights to create a more robust and dynamic model for driving sustainable tourism practices.

SSE can be seen as aligned with the concept of moral obligation as described in the Norm Activation Theory (NAT), which emphasizes internalizing moral norms as the basis for pro-social behaviors, such as environmental responsibility. NAT, proposed by Schwartz (1977), suggests that individuals are driven to act pro-social when they recognize a moral obligation and perceive that their actions can alleviate a perceived need or threat. In waste management, self-social engineering—where social transformation is driven from within the community—can reflect these moral imperatives. Communities that foster internal moral obligations toward environmental stewardship engage in actions that reflect a shared ethical responsibility, similar to the mechanism described by NAT.

This alignment between SSE and moral obligation can be further supported by empirical studies, such as those by Stern et al. (1999) and Schultz (2000), which suggest that activating personal norms is a significant predictor of environmental behavior. These personal norms, often driven by moral imperatives, catalyze behaviors that align with community-driven initiatives such as SSE, where individuals are motivated by internalized moral values to engage in sustainable practices. In essence, SSE mirrors NAT’s moral obligation concept, as both emphasize the power of internal motivations—driven by personal and collective ethical responsibility—in fostering pro-social behaviors like environmental conservation.

The advantage of self-social engineering over the concept of moral obligation lies in its proactive, dynamic approach. While moral obligation emphasizes an internal sense of duty or ethical responsibility to engage in environmentally responsible behavior, self-social engineering actively involves individuals in reshaping not only their actions but also influencing the behaviors of others within their social networks. This creates a ripple effect, fostering a collective shift toward sustainable practices. By leveraging social influence, self-social engineering has the potential to create more immediate and widespread changes in behavior, moving beyond personal conviction to drive broader environmental impact.

1.2. Self-Social Engineering

The concept of social engineering was coined by Marken in 1894 (Eisenhauer, 2019), who introduced the idea of changing people’s behavior with social engineering. However, this term began gaining widespread attention in information security through Mitnick’s work in the 1990s (Ahluwalia, 2023) on psychological manipulation to access computer systems. Later, Pound, a legal scholar in the early 20th century, also contributed to understanding this concept in the context of law and social sciences (Laksito & Bawono, 2024). Furthermore, social engineering has developed into an interdisciplinary concept, including areas such as community empowerment for environmental conservation, where psychological manipulation techniques are used to motivate environmentally friendly behavior and promote an awareness of environmental issues.

Social engineering is often characterized as a form of external domination over a community, leading not to empowerment but rather to social exploitation. In such cases, the community is positioned as an object, with the outcomes primarily serving the interests of external actors intervening in local affairs. In contrast, the concept of self-social engineering (SSE) with community empowerment has been explored in previous research, particularly within the framework of corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs (e.g., Sumardjo et al., 2022a). However, these initiatives remain largely influenced by corporate intervention in the community.

The literature review reveals a significant gap in the research on social engineering at the individual level, particularly within the context of pro-environmental behavior. This gap highlights the need for further investigation into self-social engineering (SSE) as a critical component of sustainable ecotourism practices. This current study focuses on social engineering driven by the volunteerism of tourists, which positions individuals as active agents of social reform, thereby shifting the emphasis to their role as development subjects.

While social engineering involves exerting influence on others, it is also possible to socially engineer oneself (Rowles, 2023). Social engineering traditionally involves influencing the behavior of others, but the concept of applying it to oneself, particularly in the context of fostering environmentally responsible behavior, presents a novel approach. Pretexts—believable narratives designed to influence a target’s actions—are commonly used in social engineering. For instance, in a vishing campaign, one might impersonate an IT specialist to gain a target’s trust and elicit sensitive information. Success in such endeavors often requires the social engineer to believe in their pretext, thus projecting authenticity.

Similarly, self-social engineering can be applied to influence personal behavior. By crafting internal narratives, individuals can motivate themselves to act in ways that align with desired goals. For example, an introverted individual tasked with a public-facing role might overcome anxiety by mentally adopting the persona of a seasoned professional, thereby enhancing their confidence. This technique could be adapted to promote environmentally responsible behavior, with individuals creating internal stories that position them as environmental stewards, actively influencing their choices and actions.

While social engineering has been explored in various fields, its application to individual-level behavior modification, specifically in tourism and environmental management, remains under-researched. This study introduces the concept of self-social engineering (SSE), focusing on individual and community-driven environmental responsibility, bridging the gap between theory and practice in pro-environmental tourism behaviors.

By leveraging psychological insights, self-social engineering facilitates personal growth and empowers individuals to reshape their behavior in service of broader environmental goals. Understanding and manipulating one’s psychological processes can thus be a powerful tool for fostering sustainable practices.

We believe SSE is more robust than the moral obligation concept in explaining pro-environmental behavior because it integrates multiple factors that influence behavior rather than relying solely on moral or ethical considerations. SSE involves a broader approach that includes personal habits, social norms, incentives, and individual goals. It recognizes that a combination of internal motivations, social influences, and practical considerations influences pro-environmental behavior. SSE allows individuals to design their environments and routines to support sustainable behavior. SSE acknowledges the influential role of social norms and peer influence. It can involve strategies like public commitments or community-based programs that reinforce positive behavior, making it more likely to be sustained. Moral obligation tends to be more individualistic, focusing on personal ethical beliefs. It can be less effective in changing behavior if individuals are not embedded in a social context that supports these beliefs.

SSE is more robust than the moral obligation in NAT because it takes a holistic view of what drives behavior, combining moral, social, and practical elements. It recognizes that pro-environmental behavior is complex and multifaceted, requiring more than just a sense of moral duty to be effectively promoted and sustained.

The current study is critical in developing a foundational framework for the concept of self-social engineering within the context of ecotourism in the wetland environments of South Borneo. Self-social engineering refers to a process of social transformation that originates within, is driven by, and serves the community (Sumardjo et al., 2022a, 2022b). This approach is most effective when it harnesses and strengthens the community’s internal creative social energy, which includes shared values, innovative ideas, and social bonds. In this case, tourism actors must increasingly emphasize motivation factors and environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) because the facts show that each stakeholder is working alone.

Figure 1 shows the theoretical framework of the current study. As shown in Figure 1, motivational factors represented by perceived environmental quality, attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, and ERB are important variables that increase self-awareness in nature conservation.

Based on Figure 1, the proposed hypotheses are:

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H1: Perceived environmental quality (PEQ) positively influences self-social engineering (SSE).

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H2: Perceived environmental quality (PEQ) positively influences environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) intention.

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H3: Attitude (ATT) positively influences self-social engineering (SSE).

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H4: Attitude (ATT) positively influences environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) intention.

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H5: Subjective norm (SN) positively influences environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) intention.

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H6: Subjective norm (SN) positively influences self-social engineering (SSE).

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H7: Perceived behavioral control (PBC) positively influences environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) intention.

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H8: Perceived behavioral control (PBC) positively influences self-social engineering (SSE).

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H9: Environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) intention positively influences self-social engineering (SSE).

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H10: Perceived environmental quality (PEQ) positively influences self-social engineering (SSE) through environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) intention.

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H11: Attitude (ATT) positively influences self-social engineering (SSE) through environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) intention.

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H12: Subjective norm (SN) positively influences self-social engineering (SSE) through environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) intention.

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H13: Perceived behavioral control (PBC) positively influences self-social engineering (SSE).

Wetland ecotourism has the potential to attract local and international tourists but requires public awareness of nature conservation (Rahmah et al., 2023), and it is crucial to understand the factors influencing consumers towards ecotourism experiences (Negacz et al., 2021). Motivation to travel is directly related to tourist behavior, and motivation drives individuals into goal-oriented behavioral activities (Sharpley, 2006).

The tourism experience in South Borneo consists of two categories: nature tourism and religious tourism (Prihatiningrum et al., 2024). However, studies of South Borneo wetland ecotourism are still minimal (e.g., Azizah & Said, 2024a, 2024b), and there have been no specific studies on motivation, ERB, and self-social engineering. The current research addresses the lack of specific studies on motivation, environmentally responsible behavior (ERB), and SSE in this unique context.

2. Materials and Method

2.1. Problem-Solving Approach

The causal model assumes that environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) influences self-social engineering. This is because ERB is often the result of individuals’ awareness of environmental issues and motivation to change their behavior. In this context, SSE is an individual’s attempt to modify their behavior, including environmentally responsible behavior, in response to their awareness of these issues. Thus, motivation and ERB act as triggers for self-social engineering in terms of better behavior toward the environment.

The research was conducted at Batakan Baru Beach, Tanah Laut Regency, South Borneo. Batakan Baru Beach, located in Batakan Village, Panyipatan District, Tanah Laut Regency, South Borneo, is a prominent destination for local and regional tourists (indonesia-TOURISM.com, 2019). Situated approximately 125 km from Banjarmasin, the capital of South Borneo, it offers picturesque landscapes, combining sandy beaches, lush pine trees, and the backdrop of the Meratus Mountains. The beach spans about 1 km, attracting thousands of visitors, especially during peak holidays.

The decision to choose Batakan Baru Beach for this study is informed by its popularity as a tourism hotspot and its significant environmental challenges (Pemerintah Kabupaten Tanah Laut, 2024), particularly waste management. With its rapid growth in tourist numbers and ecological significance, the beach provides a critical setting to explore sustainable tourism practices and community-driven environmental strategies.

The steps of the problem-solving approach are as follows: First, a survey and analysis were conducted to understand the motivation of tourists and the extent to which this motivation influences environmental behavior, especially regarding waste management. Next, the influence of environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) on ecotourism self-social engineering was analyzed, focusing on individuals’ efforts to influence themselves regarding environmental cleanliness. Research methods such as interviews, observations, and questionnaires collected data on tourist behavior and motivation and their self-social engineering practices in maintaining environmental cleanliness and sustainability at Batakan Baru Beach. Statistical analysis was used to identify relationships between variables and evaluate the effectiveness of self-social engineering efforts in improving ecotourism practices.

2.2. Variables

The purpose of the investigation was to determine the extent of the direct and indirect influence of perceived environmental quality (PEQ), environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) intention, attitude (ATT), subjective norm (SN), and perceived behavioral control (PBC) on self-social engineering (SSE). The questionnaire items were translated and adapted for this study following a standard back-translation method to ensure semantic and conceptual equivalence. The items were adapted from the frameworks provided by J. Liu et al. (2019) for perceived environmental quality (PEQ) and Ramkissoon et al. (2013) for environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) intentions, while the conceptual definition of self-social engineering (SSE) and moral obligation was used to design specific items for that construct. A 5-point Likert scale was used for all items to measure the respondents’ levels of agreement or perception.

Table 1. Summary of research variables.

Variable	Definition	Measurement Items	Scale
Perceived Environmental Quality (PEQ)	Tourists’ perception of the destination’s physical appearance.	(1) Cleanliness of Batakan Baru Beach (2) Public toilet facilities (3) Air quality in Batakan Baru Beach (4) Atmosphere of Batakan Baru Beach (5) Cleanliness of seawater at Batakan Baru Beach (6) Natural environment of Batakan Baru Beach (7) View of Batakan Baru Beach (8) Greenery at Batakan Baru Beach (9) Harmony of buildings and beach environment	1 = poor, 5 = excellent
Attitude (ATT)	Tourists’ evaluation of environmentally responsible behaviors as favorable or unfavorable.	(1) For me, preserving the environment of Batakan Baru Beach is a good thing (2) For me, preserving the environment of Batakan Baru Beach is a wise thing to do (3) For me, maintaining the environment of Batakan Baru Beach is a fun thing	1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree
Subjective Norm (SN)	Perceived social pressure to engage in environmentally responsible behaviors.	(1) According to people I consider important, I must take action to protect the environment in this area (2) People I consider important want me to protect the environment in this area (3) People whose opinions I value would prefer that I be involved in environmental protection in this region	1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree
Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC)	Assessment of ease or difficulty of performing environmentally responsible behaviors.	(1) It is up to me whether I want to keep Batakan Baru Beach clean or not (2) If I want, I can keep Batakan Baru Beach clean (3) I have the resources to get involved in environmental protection at Batakan Baru Beach (4) I have the time to get involved in environmental protection at Batakan Baru Beach (5) I have the opportunity to get involved in environmental protection at Batakan Baru Beach (6) I can easily maintain the environment in the Batakan Baru Beach area	1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree
Environmentally Responsible Behavior (ERB) Intention	Tourists’ intention to engage in environmentally responsible behaviors.	(1) I am willing to take the time to clean up Batakan Baru Beach (2) I am willing to support the clean-up project of Batakan Baru Beach (3) I am willing to participate in the joint activity to clean up Batakan Baru Beach (4) I am willing to donate money to the clean-up project of Batakan Baru Beach	1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree
Self-Social Engineering (SSE)	Individuals’ attempts to modify their behavior in response to environmental awareness/issues.	(1) I feel I have a moral obligation to protect the environment (2) My life values make me feel obliged to protect the environment (3) My life principles make me feel obliged to protect the environment (4) In my opinion, it is important for society to protect the environment (5) There needs to be communication between society and stakeholders in protecting the environment (6) There needs to be a dialogue between society and stakeholders in protecting the environment (7) There needs to be a common understanding between society and stakeholders in protecting the environment (8) There needs to be a mutual agreement between society and stakeholders in protecting the environment (9) The government and society are equally responsible for the environment (10) I maintain the cleanliness of Batakan Baru Beach	1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree

provides an overview of the research variables along with their corresponding measurement items.

2.3. Subjects

The data for this study were collected over the course of June 2024. The data collection process employed an online distribution method. The survey questionnaire was circulated through several WhatsApp groups targeting specific community members who had visited Batakan Baru Beach. The target number of respondents was 250; however, a total of 191 participants completed the survey, resulting in a response rate of 76.4%.

Respondents were offered an incentive in the form of an e-wallet balance of IDR 15,000 (approximately USD 1) to encourage participation. This incentive was deemed appropriate to motivate responses without compromising the integrity of the data collection process. This approach ensured that the data collection was efficient and inclusive, leveraging the high penetration of mobile communication platforms like WhatsApp in Indonesia to reach a diverse group of respondents.

The targeted population consisted of individuals who had visited Batakan Baru Beach at least twice and were 18 or older. These criteria ensured that respondents had sufficient familiarity with the location and its environmental challenges, thereby enhancing the relevance and reliability of their insights regarding environmentally responsible behavior. Visitors with such experience are more likely to provide informed responses aligned with the study’s focus on behavior change and environmental stewardship.

Purposive sampling was chosen deliberately for this study due to its suitability in exploring pro-environmental behavior among visitors to Batakan Baru Beach. This method is particularly appropriate for research that aims to gather rich and relevant data from a specific population, as it allows the selection of participants who meet predetermined criteria critical to addressing the research objectives (Palinkas et al., 2015).

2.4. Data Analysis

Data analysis was performed using SmartPLS 3.2.9, with outer and inner model evaluation stages and hypothesis testing. Outer model statistical analysis was conducted with confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). SPSS data processing software was also used for other statistical purposes. Several fit indices, such as the Comparative Fit Index (CFI) and Incremental Fit Index (IFI), were used to evaluate the research model developed (Edwards, 2001; Fan et al., 1999; Hall & Shackman, 2020; Hoyle, 1995). For both fit indices, we used the ideal target criterion of at least 0.95 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Thus, the analysis steps included item reliability testing, internal consistency, discriminant validity, and hypothesis testing, which used regression analysis.

3. Results

3.1. Description of Research Subjects

Most research subjects were females working as employees, students, and homemakers with a high school education level or above (

Table 2. Results of descriptive analysis of characteristics of visitors to Batakan Baru Beach.

Variable	Frequency	Percent
Gender
Male	58	30.4
Female	133	69.6
Education
Postgraduate	6	3.1
Graduate	75	39.3
Diploma	18	9.4
Senior high school	90	47.1
Junior high school	1	0.5
Primary	1	0.5

). The study acknowledges the gender imbalance in the sample, with female respondents comprising 69.6% of the total participants. This demographic composition aligns with previous research suggesting that women are often more engaged in environmental and social behavior surveys, potentially due to stronger pro-environmental attitudes and higher participation rates in sustainability-related discussions (Dietz et al., 2002).

3.2. Description of Visit Frequency

Most tourists visit between two and three times, some more than five times. This indicates that Batakan Baru Beach is an exciting, not dull tourist attraction with sustainable performance (

Table 3. Descriptive analysis results for the number of visits to Batakan Baru Beach.

Number of Visits	Frequency	Percent
1	41	21.5
2	51	26.7
3	64	33.5
4	8	4.2
5	15	7.9
6	2	1
7	1	0.5
8	4	2.1
9	1	0.5
10	1	0.5
13	1	0.5
15	1	0.5

).

3.3. Validity and Reliability Check of the Questionnaire

Several statistical measures were applied to ensure the internal consistency and reliability of the constructs. Cronbach’s Alpha values of 0.70 or higher are acceptable for internal consistency (Nunnally, 1978). Similarly, Rho_A values above 0.70 are recommended for evaluating construct reliability (Dijkstra & Henseler, 2015). Composite reliability (CR) scores of 0.70 or greater indicate strong reliability of the constructs (Hair et al., 2017). In addition, an average variance extracted (AVE) of 0.50 or higher demonstrates that the construct accounts for more than half of the variance in its indicators, ensuring good convergent validity (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The results of the analysis meet the criteria used. Thus, the questionnaire in this study is valid and reliable (

Table 4. Validity and reliability scores.

Variable	Cronbach’s Alpha	rho_A	Composite Reliability	Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
ATT	0.747	0.750	0.856	0.665
ERB	0.761	0.763	0.848	0.584
SSE	0.886	0.889	0.909	0.557
PBC	0.822	0.830	0.882	0.652
PEQ	0.761	0.770	0.848	0.583
SN	0.851	0.858	0.910	0.770

).

3.4. SEM Analysis

SEM-PLS analysis in the initial stage was carried out to explore valid indicators, i.e., having a loading factor value ≥ 0.70 (Hair et al., 2017). The PEQ variable has five invalid indicators, namely PEQ2, PEQ3, PEQ4, PEQ7, and PEQ8. The PBC variable indicators are PBC1 and PBC5, and the SSE variable indicators are SSE2, SSE8, and SS10. Then, these indicators were removed from the model, and further analysis results are shown in Figure 2.

3.5. The Goodness of Fit Model

The criteria for VIF values are based on the views of Hair et al. (2017) that VIF values should ideally be below three, indicating low multicollinearity among the independent variables. Thus, it can be seen that the homoscedasticity aspect for the analysis results model is fulfilled, as shown in

Table 5. Homoscedasticity analysis.

Variable	ERB	SSE
ATT	1.353	1.575
ERB		2.664
PBC	1.645	2.782
PEQ	1.436	1.440
SN	1.837	1.868

.

The SRMR, d_G, and NFI assessments are based on the following: An SRMR value of 0.08 or less indicates a good fit between the model and the data (Hu & Bentler, 1999). A lower d_G value suggests a better fit between the observed and the predicted covariance matrices (Hair et al., 2017), whereas lower values (closer to zero) indicate a better model fit with no sharp boundaries. NFI values above 0.90 are considered good model fit indicators (Bentler & Bonett, 1980). An rms Theta value of 0.12 or less is indicative of good model fit (Jörg Henseler et al., 2014), and a Q-square value greater than zero indicates that the model has predictive relevance (J. Henseler et al., 2009). Thus, it can be seen that the goodness of fit for the analysis results model is fulfilled (

Table 6. Analysis of several goodness of fit models.

Model Fit Type	Estimated Model
SRMR	0.080
d_G	0.723
NFI	0.902
rms Theta	0.119
Q2	0.861

).

Hair et al. (2017) argue that f-square values of 0.02, 0.15, and 0.35 denote small, medium, and large effect sizes, respectively. Thus, the influence of attitude on environmentally responsible behavior intention (ERB intention) and SSE, ERB intention on SSE, and perceived environment quality (PEQ) on ERB intention are in the medium and large categories. Other relationships are in the small category (

Table 7. F-square values.

Variable	ERB	SSE
ATT	0.165	0.369
ERB		0.179
PBC	0.691	0.000
PEQ	0.003	0.031
SN	0.017	0.037

).

3.6. Variable Profile

The variable profile consists of a mean value that empirically shows the degree of the variable’s good or bad value or high or low value according to field conditions. The response item score on the questionnaire is from 1 = very low to 5 = very high. The factor loading value shows the degree of strength or weakness for the indicator as a measure of the variable, where a greater value means the indicator is more critical or reflects the variable more strongly (

Table 8. Profile of exogenous variables.

Variable/Indicator	Mean	Factor Loading	p Values
Perceived Environment Quality
PEQ1	3.895	0.761	0.000
PEQ5	3.796	0.826	0.000
PEQ6	4.063	0.718	0.000
PEQ9	3.890	0.745	0.000
Attitude
Att1	4.393	0.848	0.000
Att2	4.435	0.831	0.000
Att3	4.382	0.765	0.000
Subjective Norm
SN1	4.000	0.880	0.000
SN2	4.073	0.870	0.000
SN3	4.063	0.883	0.000
Perceived Behavioral Control
PBC2	3.670	0.745	0.000
PBC3	3.649	0.847	0.000
PBC4	3.806	0.832	0.000
PBC6	3.796	0.801	0.000

).

In the endogenous variables for the ERB intention variable, the critical indicator is ERB2. On the other hand, in the SSE variable, three indicators have a relatively balanced degree of strength in reflecting it: SSE6, SSE3, and SSE7. All of these indicators are empirically in the field. Their conditions are included in the good category (

Table 9. Profile of endogenous variables.

Variable/Indicator	Mean	Factor Loading	p Values
Environmentally Responsible Behavior Intention
ERB1	4.042	0.761	0.000
ERB2	3.880	0.831	0.000
ERB3	3.759	0.733	0.000
ERB4	4.157	0.727	0.000
Self-Social Engineering
SSE1	4.068	0.728	0.000
SSE2	4.136	0.743	0.000
SSE3	4.361	0.773	0.000
SSE4	4.346	0.704	0.000
SSE5	4.398	0.760	0.000
SSE6	4.361	0.778	0.000
SSE7	4.340	0.771	0.000
SSE9	4.267	0.709	0.000

).

3.7. Testing the Direct Influence Hypothesis

In nine direct influence hypotheses testing, three hypotheses are insignificant: perceived behavioral control on SSE, perceived environmental quality on ERB intention, and the influence of subjective norm on SSE. On the other hand, one has a significant negative influence, namely perceived environmental quality on SSE (

Table 10. Hypothesis testing results (direct effect).

Variable Relation	Path Coefficient	p Values	Note
ATT → ERB	0.289	0.000	significant
ATT → SSE	0.464	0.000	significant
ERB → SSE	0.420	0.000	significant
PBC → ERB	0.653	0.000	significant
PBC → SSE	−0.014	0.849	not significant
PEQ → ERB	−0.041	0.452	not significant
PEQ → SSE	−0.130	0.045	significant
SN → ERB	0.108	0.201	not significant
SN → SSE	0.159	0.015	significant

).

3.8. Testing the Indirect Effect Hypothesis

Indirect influence testing includes the influence of attitude and perceived behavioral control on SSE through ERB intention. This shows that ERB intention mediates the influence of attitude and perceived behavioral control on SSE (

Table 11. Results of hypothesis testing (indirect influence).

Variable Relation	Path Coefficient	p Values	Note
ATT → ERB → SSE	0.122	0.000	significant
PBC → ERB → SSE	0.275	0.000	significant
PEQ → ERB → SSE	−0.017	0.469	not significant
SN → ERB → SSE	0.045	0.217	not significant

).

3.9. Results of Testing the Total Influence Hypothesis

The results of the direct influence analysis show that the most substantial variable influencing SSE is attitude (ATT → SSE), followed by perceived behavioral control (PBC → SSE), as shown in

Table 12. Total influence.

Variable Relation	Path Coefficient	p Values	Note
ATT → SSE	0.586	0.000	significant
PBC → SSE	0.261	0.000	significant
PEQ → SSE	−0.147	0.043	significant
SN → SSE	0.204	0.008	significant

.

4. Discussion

Self-social engineering is a concept that describes the efforts of individuals or groups to actively change their behavior and habits by applying psychological and social principles. This concept emphasizes the active role of individuals in creating positive change in society (Hadnagy, 2010). This study highlights the significance of self-social engineering (SSE) as an innovative framework for fostering pro-environmental behavior in tourism contexts. By integrating Environmental Psychology, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), and Norm Activation Theory (NAT), SSE emerges as a comprehensive model for addressing environmental challenges. The findings demonstrate that variables such as attitude, perceived behavioral control (PBC), and subjective norms positively influence SSE, underscoring the potential of psychological and social drivers in shaping environmentally responsible behavior.

Despite its contributions, SSE has potential limitations that must be acknowledged to ensure its effective application and development. The model assumes that individuals are intrinsically motivated to engage in pro-environmental behavior once their attitudes and perceptions are aligned. However, as J. Liu et al. (2019) emphasize, positive perceptions of environmental quality alone may not always translate into action, especially when external incentives or enforcement mechanisms are absent. This highlights a potential over-reliance on internal motivations without addressing structural or external barriers, such as inadequate infrastructure or a lack of policy support.

Alternative frameworks, such as corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs or top-down policy interventions, offer contrasting approaches to fostering pro-environmental behavior. CSR initiatives, for example, leverage corporate resources to implement large-scale environmental programs but often lack grassroots engagement, limiting their long-term sustainability (Sumardjo et al., 2022b). Similarly, while regulatory approaches can enforce behavior changes, they may not cultivate the intrinsic motivations and social norms emphasized in SSE.

SSE, therefore, provides a valuable middle ground, blending the moral and normative foundations of NAT with the psychological insights of TPB to empower individuals and communities. However, integrating external support elements, such as incentives or infrastructure development, could enhance its applicability across diverse contexts.

The study findings align with prior research (e.g., Adjei et al., 2023; Babazadeh et al., 2023; Z. Liu et al., 2022; Wu et al., 2022) emphasizing the importance of psychological constructs such as attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control in shaping pro-environmental behavior. Wu et al. (2022) demonstrated that personal and subjective norms significantly impacted university students’ waste management behaviors in China, corroborating the findings that normative pressures are strong motivators for environmental stewardship.

The influence of perceived behavioral control observed here is consistent with findings by Z. Liu et al. (2022), who studied recycling behaviors in urban Chinese households. Their results showed that individuals with higher perceived control over recycling tasks were more likely to engage in sustainable practices.

Other studies, such as those conducted by Adjei et al. (2023) and Babazadeh et al. (2023) show similar results. Adjei et al. (2023) employed NAT to predict plastic waste recycling behavior, finding that personal norms and awareness of consequences strongly influenced actions, echoing the moral dimensions of SSE. Babazadeh et al. (2023) applied TPB to examine waste separation behaviors, identifying perceived behavioral control and subjective norms as critical factors, similar to the findings in this study.

Regarding anomalies in the results, specifically the non-significant and negative relationships between perceived environmental quality (PEQ) and self-social engineering (SSE), as well as PEQ and environmentally responsible behavior (ERB), these findings are indeed unexpected, given the theoretical premise that positive perceptions of environmental quality generally foster pro-environmental behavior (J. Liu et al., 2019).

There are possible explanations for anomalies. First, visitors to Batakan Baru Beach may have perceived the environment as sufficiently well-maintained, leading to complacency. This phenomenon, often called the paradox of comfort, suggests that individuals may feel less compelled to engage in pro-environmental behaviors when they perceive no immediate environmental degradation (Jorgensen & Stedman, 2001).

Second, high PEQ might create an impression that authorities or other stakeholders are effectively handling environmental management. This could diminish individuals’ perceived moral obligation or personal responsibility to engage in pro-environmental behaviors, aligning with findings in related studies (Ramkissoon et al., 2013).

Third, in the context of Batakan Baru Beach, social and cultural norms may prioritize communal or external interventions over individual action. This could explain why positive PEQ perceptions are not directly linked to SSE or ERB intentions, diverging from findings in Western-centric research (Z. Liu et al., 2022).

Fourth, although the indicators for PEQ were adapted and validated, the perception of environmental quality may have been influenced by transient factors (e.g., seasonal variations or recent clean-up activities). These short-term perceptions might not align with broader behavioral intentions, causing weak or negative relationships.

5. Conclusions

This study introduces and validates the concept of self-social engineering (SSE) as an innovative framework for promoting pro-environmental behavior within tourism contexts. By integrating Environmental Psychology, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), and Norm Activation Theory (NAT), SSE demonstrates a multidisciplinary approach to addressing environmental challenges, particularly in Batakan Baru Beach. The findings highlight the significance of psychological and social factors, such as attitude, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms, in fostering environmentally responsible behavior.

This study makes several theoretical contributions. First, by combining Environmental Psychology, TPB, and NAT elements, this research provides a robust, unified framework for understanding pro-environmental behavior. This integration bridges gaps in existing literature, which often examines these theories in isolation. Second, the concept of SSE extends the understanding of individual and community-driven environmental stewardship by emphasizing intrinsic motivation and social influence. Unlike traditional frameworks, SSE offers a proactive, dynamic perspective that positions individuals as agents of change. Third, this study adds to the limited body of research on pro-environmental behavior in ecotourism, particularly in a collectivist society like Indonesia, where communal values and shared responsibility play a pivotal role.

The findings also offer significant benefits for enhancing the appeal and sustainability of Batakan Baru Beach as a tourist destination. By fostering intrinsic motivation through targeted environmental awareness campaigns, educational initiatives can instill a more profound sense of environmental responsibility among visitors, encouraging long-term engagement with pro-environmental behaviors. This, in turn, enhances the beach’s reputation as a model of sustainable tourism.

Additionally, the development of infrastructure, such as accessible recycling facilities, and the introduction of incentive systems, like rewards for environmentally responsible actions, can create a more enjoyable and eco-friendly visitor experience. These improvements address current environmental challenges and establish Batakan Baru Beach as an innovative and sustainable tourism leader, attracting eco-conscious travelers.

Finally, promoting collaborative efforts among tourists, residents, and authorities can foster a culture of shared responsibility. Such partnerships can lead to more effective management strategies, reinforcing the beach’s image as a clean and well-maintained destination. This collective approach not only preserves the natural beauty of Batakan Baru Beach but also adds substantial value to its position as a key attraction in South Borneo, supporting local economic growth and environmental conservation.

While the study provides valuable insights, certain limitations warrant consideration. Its cross-sectional design restricts the ability to assess changes in behavior over time, highlighting the need for longitudinal research to evaluate the sustainability of SSE-driven interventions. Additionally, the relatively localized sample limits the generalizability of findings. Expanding respondents’ demographic and geographical diversity in future research could offer a more comprehensive understanding of SSE’s applicability.

Future studies should explore the interplay between SSE and external factors, such as policy interventions and corporate social responsibility (CSR) programs, to enhance scalability and broader adoption. Further investigations could also assess the role of digital technology and social media in amplifying the impact of SSE by creating virtual communities for environmental stewardship. Lastly, comparative analyses across diverse tourism destinations are essential to identify universal principles and context-specific factors shaping the success of SSE. Such endeavors will refine the framework and its practical applications, advancing the theory and practice of sustainable tourism management.