The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Food-Related Behaviour of Tourists Visiting Greece
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
2.1. Dining Facilities and Local Food
2.2. Attitudes toward Food
2.3. Food Motivations
2.4. Food Satisfaction
3. Methodology
3.1. Survey Design
3.2. Data Collection
3.3. Data Analysis
4. Results
4.1. Tourists’ Profiles
4.2. Dining Facilities and Local Food
4.3. Attitudes toward Food
4.4. Food Motivations
4.5. Food Satisfaction
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
A1: What is your profile? | ||||||||||||||||
Please select or write in an answer for each question. | ||||||||||||||||
1. What is your Gender? | Male | Female | ||||||||||||||
2. What is your Age? | 18–30 | 31–40 | 41–50 | 51–60 | 61 or older | |||||||||||
3. Write in your nationality | ||||||||||||||||
4. What is the highest level of education you have achieved? | Primary School | Secondary education | Vocational training | |||||||||||||
Diploma/Bachelor degree | Master degree | PhD | ||||||||||||||
5. What is your occupation? | Student | Civil servant | Full-time private employee | Part-time private employee | ||||||||||||
Freelancer | Unemployed | Retired | Homemaker | Other | ||||||||||||
6. What is your current marital status? | Married | Married with child/children | Never Married | Divorced/Separated | Widowed | |||||||||||
7. How would you characterise your current financial status? | Not good | Slightly good | Good | Very good | Excellent | |||||||||||
B1: What are the characteristics of this current trip? | ||||||||||||||||
Please select or write in an answer for each question | ||||||||||||||||
1. Write in the place you visited (if you stayed in more than one place, you could write the place where you spent most of your time or the area of your trip). | ||||||||||||||||
2. Write in how many nights you stayed in that place. | ||||||||||||||||
3. Had you visited that destination before in the past? | No, this was the 1st time | Yes, this was the 2nd time | Yes, I have been to that destination more than twice in the past | |||||||||||||
4. Where did you stay (most of your time)? | 4–5 stars hotel | 2–3 stars hotel | 1-star hotel/Hostel/Pension | |||||||||||||
Family or friends’ house | Airbnb or rooms to rent | Camping | Other | |||||||||||||
5. Whom did you travel with? | Alone | Couple | Family (with kids) | Friends/relatives | ||||||||||||
6. Did you travel as a member of a tour group? | Yes | No | ||||||||||||||
7. Write in how much money you spent individually and every day during this trip (accommodation, transportation, food, entertainment) (in Euros). | ||||||||||||||||
8. Write in how much money you spent individually and every day on food (in Euros). | ||||||||||||||||
B2. Think of this current trip. How did you spend your time? | ||||||||||||||||
Please indicate your level of frequency with each of these statements. | ||||||||||||||||
Not at all | Occasionally | Sometimes | Frequently | Usually | ||||||||||||
1. Resting | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
2. Entertainment, nightlife | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
3. Sightseeing, museums, and monuments | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
4. Food, culinary, or tasting activities | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
5. Adventure—alternative activities | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
B3. Think of this current trip. How often did you use the following eating facilities? | ||||||||||||||||
Please indicate your level of frequency with each of these statements. | ||||||||||||||||
Never | Occasionally | Sometimes | Frequently | Usually | ||||||||||||
1. Eating facilities (e.g., hotel restaurant) at the place of stay | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
2. Own preparation of meals at the place of stay | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
3. Greek restaurants and tavernas | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
4. Fast food and street food (e.g., pitta gyros, souvlaki, canteens) | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
5. Restaurants serving international cuisine | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
6. Snack bars, coffee houses, beach bars | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
B4. Think of this current trip. Please indicate your level of agreement with each of these statements. | ||||||||||||||||
Strongly Disagree | Disagree | Neutral | Agree | Strongly Agree | ||||||||||||
1. I tasted local food during my stay in Greece. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
C1. Think of this current trip. Please indicate your level of agreement with each of these statements. | ||||||||||||||||
Strongly Disagree | Disagree | Neutral | Agree | Strongly Agree | ||||||||||||
1. Food and eating are important motives for travelling. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
2. Food and eating are important when choosing a destination. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
3. Food and eating are important for travel satisfaction. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
4. I am interested in food and cuisine in general. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
5. I have good knowledge of food and cuisine in general. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
C2. Think of this current trip. Please indicate your level of agreement with each of these statements. | ||||||||||||||||
Strongly Disagree | Disagree | Neutral | Agree | Strongly Agree | ||||||||||||
1. Experiencing local products increases my knowledge about different cultures. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
2. Tasting local products in an original place is an authentic experience. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
3. It is important to me that the local products I eat on holiday look nice and taste good. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
4. Experiencing local products in their original place excites me. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
5. Tasting local products on holiday helps me to relax. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
6. Tasting local products enables me to have an enjoyable time with friends/family. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
7. I like to talk to everybody about my local product experiences. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
8. I want to give advice about local product experiences to people who want to travel. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
9. Local products contain a lot of fresh ingredients produced in a local area. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
10. Local food is nutritious. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
11. I am constantly sampling new and different food products. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
12. I usually do not avoid food products that I have not tasted before. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
C3. Think of this current trip. Please indicate your level of agreement with each of these statements. | ||||||||||||||||
Strongly Disagree | Disagree | Neutral | Agree | Strongly Agree | ||||||||||||
1. I am satisfied with the whole travel experience. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
2. I am satisfied with the food that I tasted (products and services). | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
3. I am satisfied with the local food that I tasted. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
4. I will eat local food again at this destination. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |||||||||||
5. I will recommend local food to my friends or relatives. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
References
- Almeida, S.; Mesquita, S.; Carvalho, I. The COVID-19 Impacts on The Hospitality Industry Highlights from Experts in Portugal. Tour. Hosp. Manag. 2022, 28, 61–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Balińska, A.; Olejniczak, W. Experiences of Polish Tourists Traveling for Leisure Purposes during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Sustainability 2021, 13, 11919. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Colmekcioglu, N.; Dineva, D.; Lu, X. “Building Back Better”: The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Resilience of the Hospitality and Tourism Industries. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 2022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gössling, S.; Schweiggart, N. Two Years of COVID-19 and Tourism: What We Learned, and What We Should Have Learned. J. Sustain. Tour. 2022, 1–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kousi, T.; Mitsi, L.-C.; Simos, J. The Early Stage of COVID-19 Outbreak in Greece: A Review of the National Response and the Socioeconomic Impact. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rapti, E.; Gkouna, O. Crisis Management in Tourism: Visit Intention, Destination Image and Social Media in Times of COVD-19, the Greek Case. Geoj. Tour. Geosites 2022, 41, 564–570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- STATISTA Greece—Distribution of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) across Economic Sectors 2020. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/276399/distribution-of-gross-domestic-product-gdp-across-economic-sectors-in-greece/ (accessed on 26 December 2021).
- Gaki, E.; Koufodontis, N.I. Regional Tourism Resilience and Recovery in Times of Crises. Geoj. Tour. Geosites 2022, 40, 259–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wolf, E. Greek Cuisine at ‘FoodTreX’ Food Travel 2019 Event in Thessaloniki; GTP Headlines. 2019. Available online: https://news.gtp.gr/2018/11/19/greek-cuisine-foodtrex-food-travel-2019-event-thessaloniki/ (accessed on 26 December 2021).
- NPHO—National Public Health Organization COVID-19. Available online: https://eody.gov.gr/en/category/covid-19-en/ (accessed on 28 November 2020).
- Gössling, S.; Scott, D.; Hall, C.M. Pandemics, Tourism and Global Change: A Rapid Assessment of COVID-19. J. Sustain. Tour. 2020, 29, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sigala, M. Tourism and COVID-19: Impacts and Implications for Advancing and Resetting Industry and Research. J. Bus. Res. 2020, 117, 312–321. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miao, Q.; Schwarz, S.; Schwarz, G. Responding to COVID-19: Community Volunteerism and Coproduction in China. World Dev. 2021, 137, 105128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wassler, P.; Fan, D.X.F. A Tale of Four Futures: Tourism Academia and COVID-19. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 2021, 38, 100818. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gallego, I.; Font, X. Changes in Air Passenger Demand as a Result of the COVID-19 Crisis: Using Big Data to Inform Tourism Policy. J. Sustain. Tour. 2021, 29, 1470–1489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Villacé-Molinero, T.; Fernández-Muñoz, J.J.; Orea-Giner, A.; Fuentes-Moraleda, L. Understanding the New Post-COVID-19 Risk Scenario: Outlooks and Challenges for a New Era of Tourism. Tour. Manag. 2021, 86, 104324. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pappas, N. COVID19: Holiday Intentions during a Pandemic. Tour. Manag. 2021, 84, 104287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Zenker, S.; Kock, F. The Coronavirus Pandemic – A Critical Discussion of a Tourism Research Agenda. Tour. Manag. 2020, 81, 104164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Panzer-Krause, S. Rural Tourism in and after the COVID-19 Era: “Revenge Travel” or Chance for a Degrowth-Oriented Restart? Cases from Ireland and Germany. Tour. Hosp. 2022, 3, 399–415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Roman, M.; Niedziółka, A.; Krasnodębski, A. Respondents’ Involvement in Tourist Activities at the Time of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Sustainability 2020, 12, 9610. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ellis, A.; Park, E.; Kim, S.; Yeoman, I. What Is Food Tourism? Tour. Manag. 2018, 68, 250–263. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kivela, J.; Crotts, J.C. Tourism and Gastronomy: Gastronomy’s Influence on How Tourists Experience a Destination. J. Hosp. Tour. Res. 2006, 30, 354–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Richards, G. Evolving Research Perspectives on Food and Gastronomic Experiences in Tourism. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 2021, 33, 1037–1058. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rinaldi, C. Food and Gastronomy for Sustainable Place Development: A Multidisciplinary Analysis of Different Theoretical Approaches. Sustainability 2017, 9, 1748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mak, A.H.N.; Lumbers, M.; Eves, A.; Chang, R.C.Y. Factors Influencing Tourist Food Consumption. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 2012, 31, 928–936. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sobal, J.; Bisogni, C.A.; Devine, C.M.; Jastran, M. A Conceptual Model of the Food Choice Process over the Life Course. In The Psychology of Food Choice; Shepherd, R., Raats, M., Eds.; CAB International: Oxfordshire, UK, 2006; pp. 1–18. [Google Scholar]
- Kontis, A.-P.; Kourkoulou, I.; Vlassi, E. Social Media During the COVID-19 Era in 5* Hotels in Attica, Greece. In Strategic Innovative Marketing and Tourism in the COVID-19 Era; Kavoura, A., Havlovic, S.J., Totskaya, N., Eds.; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2021; pp. 223–231. ISBN 9783030661533. [Google Scholar]
- Durmaz, Y.; Çayırağası, F.; Çopuroğlu, F. The Mediating Role of Destination Satisfaction between the Perception of Gastronomy Tourism and Consumer Behavior during COVID-19. Int. J. Gastron. Food Sci. 2022, 28, 100525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Matiza, T. Post-COVID-19 Crisis Travel Behaviour: Towards Mitigating the Effects of Perceived Risk. J. Tour. Futures 2020, 8, 99–108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cohen, S.A.; Prayag, G.; Moital, M. Consumer Behaviour in Tourism: Concepts, Influences and Opportunities. Curr. Issues Tour. 2014, 17, 872–909. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Henderson, J.C. Food Tourism Reviewed. Br. Food. J. 2009, 111, 317–326. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Janssen, M.; Chang, B.P.I.; Hristov, H.; Pravst, I.; Profeta, A.; Millard, J. Changes in Food Consumption During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Analysis of Consumer Survey Data from the First Lockdown Period in Denmark, Germany, and Slovenia. Front. Nutr. 2021, 8, 60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, J.; Kim, J.; Lee, S.K.; Tang, L. (Rebecca) Effects of Epidemic Disease Outbreaks on Financial Performance of Restaurants: Event Study Method Approach. J. Hosp. Tour. Manag. 2020, 43, 32–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gursoy, D.; Chi, C.G. Effects of COVID-19 Pandemic on Hospitality Industry: Review of the Current Situations and a Research Agenda. J. Hosp. Mark. Manag. 2020, 29, 527–529. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rehman, S.U.; Samad, S.; Singh, S.; Usman, M. Tourist’s Satisfaction with Local Food Effect Behavioral Intention in COVID-19 Pandemic: A Moderated-Mediated Perspective. Br. Food J. 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hansen, T. Consumer Food Sustainability before and during the COVID-19 Crisis: A Quantitative Content Analysis and Food Policy Implications. Food Policy 2022, 107, 102207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wall, E.A.; Berry, L.L. The Combined Effects of the Physical Environment and Employee Behavior on Customer Perception of Restaurant Service Quality. Cornell Hosp. Q. 2007, 48, 59–69. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Taylor, S.; Landry, C.A.; Paluszek, M.M.; Asmundson, G.J.G. Reactions to COVID-19: Differential Predictors of Distress, Avoidance, and Disregard for Social Distancing. J. Affect. Disord. 2020, 277, 94–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gilbert, D.; Wong, R.K.C. Passenger Expectations and Airline Services: A Hong Kong Based Study. Tour. Manag. 2003, 24, 519–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Quintal, V.A.; Lee, J.A.; Soutar, G.N. Risk, Uncertainty and the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Tourism Example. Tour. Manag. 2010, 31, 797–805. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dedeoğlu, B.B.; Mariani, M.; Shi, F.; Okumus, B. The Impact of COVID-19 on Destination Visit Intention and Local Food Consumption. Br. Food J. 2022, 124, 634–653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hjalager, A.M. What Do Tourists Eat and Why? Towards a Sociology of Gastronomy and Tourism. Tourism 2004, 52, 195–201. [Google Scholar]
- Björk, P.; Kauppinen-Räisänen, H. Culinary-Gastronomic Tourism – a Search for Local Food Experiences. Nutr. Food Sci. 2014, 44, 294–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tikkanen, I. Maslow’s Hierarchy and Food Tourism in Finland: Five Cases. Br. Food J. 2007, 109, 721–734. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Björk, P.; Kauppinen-Räisänen, H. Local Food: A Source for Destination Attraction. Int. J. Contemp. Hosp. Manag. 2016, 28, 177–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pérez-Priego, M.A.; García-Moreno García, M. de los B.; Gomez-Casero, G.; Caridad y López del Río, L. Segmentation Based on the Gastronomic Motivations of Tourists: The Case of the Costa Del Sol (Spain). Sustainability 2019, 11, 409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ajzen, I. The Theory of Planned Behavior. Organ. Behav. Hum. Decis. Process 1991, 50, 179–211. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Godovykh, M.; Pizam, A.; Bahja, F. Antecedents and Outcomes of Health Risk Perceptions in Tourism, Following the COVID-19 Pandemic. Tour. Rev. 2021, 76, 737–748. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, Y.G.; Eves, A.; Scarles, C. Building a Model of Local Food Consumption on Trips and Holidays: A Grounded Theory Approach. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 2009, 28, 423–431. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Madaleno, A.; Eusébio, C.; Varum, C. Purchase of Local Food Products during Trips by International Visitors. Int. J. Tourism Res. 2018, 20, 115–125. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fields, K. Demand for the Gastronomy Tourism Product: Motivational Factors. In Tourism and Gastronomy; Hjalager, A.M., Richards, G., Eds.; Routledge: London, UK, 2002; ISBN 978-0-203-21861-7. [Google Scholar]
- Kim, Y.G.; Eves, A. Construction and Validation of a Scale to Measure Tourist Motivation to Consume Local Food. Tour. Manag. 2012, 33, 1458–1467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mak, A.H.N.; Lumbers, M.; Eves, A.; Chang, R.C.Y. The Effects of Food-Related Personality Traits on Tourist Food Consumption Motivations. Asia Pacific J. Tour. Res. 2017, 22, 1–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kim, Y.G.; Eves, A.; Scarles, C. Empirical Verification of a Conceptual Model of Local Food Consumption at a Tourist Destination. Int. J. Hosp. Manag. 2013, 33, 484–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cheung, C.; Takashima, M.; Choi, H. (Helen); Yang, H.; Tung, V. The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on the Psychological Needs of Tourists: Implications for the Travel and Tourism Industry. J. Travel Tour. Mark. 2021, 38, 155–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yilmaz, G.; Şahin, A. How Does the COVID-19 Outbreak Affect the Food and Beverage Industry in Turkey? Proposal of a Holistic Model. J. Foodserv. Bus. Res. 2021, 24, 629–664. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ying, T.; Wang, K.; Liu, X.; Wen, J.; Goh, E. Rethinking Game Consumption in Tourism: A Case of the 2019 Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Outbreak in China. Tour. Recreat. Res. 2021, 46, 304–309. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fountain, J. The Future of Food Tourism in a Post-COVID-19 World: Insights from New Zealand. J. Tour. Futures 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, T.-L.; Tran, P.T.K.; Tran, V.T. Destination Perceived Quality, Tourist Satisfaction and Word-of-Mouth. Tour. Rev. 2017, 72, 392–410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pérez-Gálvez, J.C.; Medina-Viruel, M.J.; Jara-Alba, C.; López-Guzmán, T. Segmentation of Food Market Visitors in World Heritage Sites. Case Study of the City of Córdoba (Spain). Curr. Issues Tour. 2020, 24, 1139–1153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stone, M.J.; Migacz, S.; Wolf, E. Beyond the Journey: The Lasting Impact of Culinary Tourism Activities. Curr. Issues Tour. 2019, 22, 147–152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lo, A.S.; Cheung, C.; Law, R. Hong Kong Residents’ Adoption of Risk Reduction Strategies in Leisure Travel. J. Travel Tour. Mark. 2011, 28, 240–260. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hong, Y.; Cai, G.; Mo, Z.; Gao, W.; Xu, L.; Jiang, Y.; Jiang, J. The Impact of COVID-19 on Tourist Satisfaction with B&B in Zhejiang, China: An Importance–Performance Analysis. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 3747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kalimeri, K.; Beiro, M.G.; Bonanomi, A.; Rosina, A.; Cattuto, C. Traditional versus Facebook-Based Surveys: Evaluation of Biases in Self-Reported Demographic and Psychometric Information. Demogr. Res. 2020, 42, 133–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schneider, D.; Harknett, K. What’s to Like? Facebook as a Tool for Survey Data Collection. Sociol. Methods Res. 2019, 0049124119882477. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Buhalis, D. Technology in Tourism-from Information Communication Technologies to ETourism and Smart Tourism towards Ambient Intelligence Tourism: A Perspective Article. Tour. Rev. 2019, 75, 267–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Finn, M.; Walton, M.; White, M. Tourism and Leisure Research Methods: Data Collection, Analysis, and Interpretation. Pearson Education: London, UK, 2000. [Google Scholar]
- Kline, R.B. Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, 4th ed.; Guilford Press: New York, NY, USA, 2016; ISBN 9781462523344. [Google Scholar]
- Jamieson, S. Likert Scales: How to (Ab)Use Them. Med. Educ. 2004, 38, 1217–1218. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Brant, R. Assessing Proportionality in the Proportional Odds Model for Ordinal Logistic Regression. Biometrics 1990, 46, 1171–1178. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Humagain, P.; Singleton, P.A. Examining Relationships between COVID-19 Destination Practices, Value, Satisfaction and Behavioral Intentions for Tourists’ Outdoor Recreation Trips. J. Dest. Mark. Manag. 2021, 22, 100665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, S.H.; Deale, C. Consumers’ Perceptions of Risks Associated with the Use of Airbnb before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int. Hosp. Rev. 2021, 35, 225–239. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tiganis, A.; Tsakiridou, E. Local Food Consumption by Foreign Tourists in Greece. Int. J. Tour. Policy 2022, 12, 70. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bernal Escoto, B.E.; Montero Delgado, N.I.; Rivera Aguirre, F.A. Strategic Analysis of Sustainable Tourism in Baja California against COVID-19. Sustainability 2021, 13, 3948. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vena-Oya, J.; Castañeda-García, J.A.; Rodríguez-Molina, M.Á. Forecasting a Post-COVID-19 Economic Crisis Using Fuzzy Cognitive Maps: A Spanish Tourism-Sector Perspective. Curr. Issues Tour. 2021, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Artieda-Ponce, M.P.; Macas-Mogrovejo, J.K.; Chango-Cañaveral, P.M.; Quezada-Sarmiento, P.A. Study on the Agricultural Products of the Towns Loja and Catamayo as a Historical Contribution on the Ecuadorian Gastronomy. In Advances in Tourism, Technology and Systems; de Carvalho, J.V., Rocha, Á., Liberato, P., Peña, A., Eds.; Springer Singapore: Singapore, 2021; Volume 208, pp. 25–34. ISBN 9789813342569. [Google Scholar]
- López-Guzmán, T.; Pérez Gálvez, J.C.; Universidad de Córdoba (España); Muñoz-Fernández, G.A. Universidad de Córdoba (España) Satisfaction, Motivation, Loyalty and Segmentation of Tourists in World Heritage Cities. pasos 2018, 16, 73–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rodríguez-Pérez, C.; Molina-Montes, E.; Verardo, V.; Artacho, R.; García-Villanova, B.; Guerra-Hernández, E.J.; Ruíz-López, M.D. Changes in Dietary Behaviours during the COVID-19 Outbreak Confinement in the Spanish COVIDiet Study. Nutrients 2020, 12, 1730. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hajibaba, H.; Gretzel, U.; Leisch, F.; Dolnicar, S. Crisis-Resistant Tourists. Ann. Tour. Res. 2015, 53, 46–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Farmaki, A.; Khalilzadeh, J.; Altinay, L. Travel Motivation and Demotivation within Politically Unstable Nations. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 2019, 29, 118–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rittichainuwat, N. Responding to Disaster: Thai and Scandinavian Tourists’ Motivation to Visit Phuket, Thailand. J. Travel Res. 2008, 46, 422–432. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Smith, M.; Reisinger, Y. Transforming Quality of Life through Wellness Tourism. In Transformational Tourism: Tourist Perspectives; Cabi: Wallingford, UK, 2013; pp. 55–67. [Google Scholar]
- Galvani, A.; Lew, A.A.; Perez, M.S. COVID-19 Is Expanding Global Consciousness and the Sustainability of Travel and Tourism. Tour. Geogr. 2020, 22, 567–576. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Miller, D.; Merrilees, B.; Coghlan, A. Sustainable Urban Tourism: Understanding and Developing Visitor pro-Environmental Behaviours. J. Sustain. Tour. 2015, 23, 26–46. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bertella, G. Re-Thinking Sustainability and Food in Tourism. Ann. Tour. Res. 2020, 84, 103005. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bach-Faig, A.; Berry, E.M.; Lairon, D.; Reguant, J.; Trichopoulou, A.; Dernini, S.; Medina, F.X.; Battino, M.; Belahsen, R.; Miranda, G.; et al. Mediterranean Diet Pyramid Today. Science and Cultural Updates. Public Health Nutr. 2011, 14, 2274–2284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dernini, S.; Berry, E.M. Mediterranean Diet: From a Healthy Diet to a Sustainable Dietary Pattern. Front. Nutr. 2015, 2, 15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Germani, A.; Vitiello, V.; Giusti, A.M.; Pinto, A.; Donini, L.M.; del Balzo, V. Environmental and Economic Sustainability of the Mediterranean Diet. Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 2014, 65, 1008–1012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lazaridis, G.; Mavrommatis, G.; Matalas, A. Food Motivational Factors of Tourists to Greece. J. Gastron. Tour. 2021, 6, 45–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- GTP WTD 2021: Greece Looking to Redefine Tourism Goals. Available online: https://news.gtp.gr/2021/09/27/wtd-2021-greece-looking-redefine-tourism-goals/ (accessed on 28 March 2022).
- Papanikos, G.T. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Greek Tourism-Updates and Comparisons. AJT 2022, 9, 51–62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fowler, D.S. Impact of COVID-19 on the Global Hospitality Industry: A Brief Review of Current Academic Literature and Meta-Analysis to Determine Primary Qualitative Themes. Research in Hospitality Management 2022, 12, 29–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yiannakou, A.; Apostolou, A.; Birou-Athanasiou, V.; Papagiannakis, A.; Vitopoulou, A. Branding Places through Experiential Tourism: A Survey on the Features of the Experiential Product and Enterprises in Greek Regions. Tour. Hosp. 2022, 3, 435–450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Metaxas, T.; Juárez, L.; Andrinos, M. Measuring the Impact of Greece as a Safe Branding Tourist Destination: Evidence from Spain and Greece. Sustainability 2022, 14, 4440. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Yeoman, I.; McMahon-Beatte, U. The Future of Food Tourism. J. Tour. Futures 2016, 2, 95–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Variables | Categories | Travel Period | Chi-Squared Tests | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Before COVID-19 | During COVID-19 | p-Value | ||
Gender | Male | 47.8% | 39.8% | 0.019 |
Female | 52.2% | 60.2% | ||
Age Group | 18–30 years old | 35.1% | 30.3% | <0.001 |
31–40 years old | 28.8% | 44.0% | ||
41–50 years old | 18.6% | 19.2% | ||
51–60 years old | 12.1% | 6.0% | ||
>60 years of age | 5.3% | 0.5% | ||
Nationality | Foreigner | 67.4% | 69.5% | 0.510 |
Greek | 32.6% | 30.5% | ||
Nationality (Continent) | Europe (except Greece) | 45.1% | 63.8% | <0.001 |
North America | 4.2% | 1.4% | ||
Central and South America | 4.7% | 1.0% | ||
Asia | 10.0% | 2.9% | ||
Africa | 2.6% | 0.2% | ||
Oceania | 0.9% | 0.2% | ||
Greece | 32.6% | 30.5% | ||
Education | Primary school | 0.2% | 0% | <0.001 |
Secondary education | 17.8% | 9.4% | ||
Vocational training | 3.5% | 3.6% | ||
Diploma/Bachelor’s degree | 38.3% | 29.8% | ||
Master’s degree | 32.0% | 46.6% | ||
PhD | 8.2% | 10.6% | ||
Occupation | Student | 21.1% | 11.4% | <0.001 |
Civil servant | 19.5% | 14.3% | ||
Full-time private employee | 24.6% | 31.1% | ||
Part-time private employee | 8.7% | 12.1% | ||
Freelancer | 11.0% | 24.8% | ||
Unemployed | 4.7% | 3.9% | ||
Retired | 4.9% | 0.5% | ||
Homemaker | 0.9% | 0.5% | ||
Other | 4.5% | 1.5% | ||
Marital Status | Married | 11.8% | 18.8% | 0.043 |
Married with child/children | 25.9% | 24.2% | ||
Never married | 56.7% | 51.7% | ||
Divorced/Separated | 5.4% | 5.1% | ||
Widowed | 0.2% | 0.2% | ||
Financial Status | Not good | 3.8% | 4.4% | <0.001 |
Slightly good | 27.8% | 15.6% | ||
Good | 54.0% | 53.7% | ||
Very good | 12.7% | 24.6% | ||
Excellent | 1.7% | 1.7% |
Variables | Categories | Travel Period | Chi-Squared Tests | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Before COVID-19 | During COVID-19 | p-Value | ||
Place of visit | Big cities (Athens, Salonica, Patras) | 31.9% | 11.3% | <0.001 |
Islands | 35.6% | 62.6% | ||
Villages, touristic resorts (mainland) | 19.7% | 19.4% | ||
Other | 12.9% | 7.0% | ||
Length of stay | <4 nights | 12.4% | 5.8% | <0.001 |
4–7 nights | 34.7% | 72.2% | ||
8–15 nights | 43.9% | 15.0% | ||
>15 nights | 9.0% | 7.0% | ||
Previous visits to the destination | No, this was the 1st time | 58.7% | 54.2% | <0.001 |
Yes, this was the 2nd time | 12.4% | 22.4% | ||
Yes, I have been to that destination more than twice in the past | 28.9% | 23.4% | ||
Place of stay in the destination | 4–5 stars hotel | 11.0% | 19.9% | <0.001 |
2–3 stars hotel | 15.7% | 30.2% | ||
1 star hotel/hostel/pension | 12.6% | 4.1% | ||
Family or friends’ houses | 18.0% | 10.6% | ||
Airbnb or rooms to rent | 25.9% | 30.2% | ||
Camping | 11.2% | 2.9% | ||
Other | 5.6% | 2.2% | ||
Travel companion | Alone | 22.5% | 14.4% | <0.001 |
Couple | 25.4% | 54.0% | ||
Family (with kids) | 19.6% | 10.3% | ||
Friends/relatives | 32.4% | 21.3% | ||
Travel as a tour group member | Yes | 3.0% | 1.9% | 0.80 |
No | 97.0% | 98.1% |
Variables | Travel Period | Mann–Whitney U Test | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before COVID-19 | During COVID-19 | p-Value | |||
Median | Interquartile Range | Median | Interquartile Range | ||
Resting | 3 | 2 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 |
Entertainment, nightlife | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | <0.001 |
Sightseeing, museums, and monuments | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | <0.001 |
Food, culinary, or tasting activities | 3 | 2 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 |
Adventure—alternative activities | 2 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 0.005 |
Money spent individually and every day during this trip (in Euros) | 70 | 50 | 75 | 50 | 0.174 |
Money spent individually and every day on food (in Euros) | 20 | 20 | 25 | 15 | <0.001 |
% Money for Food | 26 | 21 | 36 | 13 | <0.001 |
Variables | Categories | Travel Period | Mann–Whitney U Test | Ordinal Logistic Regression | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before COVID-19 | During COVID-19 | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | ||
Dining facilities (e.g., hotel restaurant) at the place of stay | Never | 29.3% | 16.6% | <0.001 | 1.30 | 0.91, 1.86 |
Occasionally | 31.4% | 28.1% | ||||
Sometimes | 19.3% | 34.9% | ||||
Frequently | 14.0% | 14.2% | ||||
Usually | 6.0% | 6.3% | ||||
Own preparation of meals at the place of stay | Never | 31.7% | 27.6% | 0.001 | 2.07 *** | 1.41, 3.04 |
Occasionally | 34.7% | 25.7% | ||||
Sometimes | 20.5% | 23.7% | ||||
Frequently | 8.2% | 14.9% | ||||
Usually | 4.9% | 8.2% | ||||
Greek restaurants and tavernas | Never | 6.8% | 4.3% | <0.001 | 2.03 *** | 1.43, 2.88 |
Occasionally | 36.1% | 14.4% | ||||
Sometimes | 23.1% | 23.0% | ||||
Frequently | 23.1% | 31.2% | ||||
Usually | 11.0% | 27.1% | ||||
Fast food and street food (e.g., pitta gyros, souvlaki, canteens) | Never | 18.4% | 30.0% | <0.001 | 0.35 *** | 0.23, 0.54 |
Occasionally | 37.2% | 47.2% | ||||
Sometimes | 18.6% | 13.4% | ||||
Frequently | 12.3% | 7.4% | ||||
Usually | 13.5% | 1.9% | ||||
Restaurants serving international cuisine | Never | 59.3% | 70.9% | <0.001 | 0.96 | 0.46, 2.00 |
Occasionally | 32.9% | 23.8% | ||||
Sometimes | 4.2% | 2.9% | ||||
Frequently | 2.3% | 1.7% | ||||
Usually | 1.2% | 0.7% | ||||
Snack bars, coffee houses, beach bars | Never | 12.6% | 16.6% | 0.001 | 0.67 * | 0.47, 0.96 |
Occasionally | 41.4% | 43.8% | ||||
Sometimes | 16.8% | 24.3% | ||||
Frequently | 17.5% | 12.5% | ||||
Usually | 11.7% | 2.9% |
Variables | Categories | Travel Period | Mann–Whitney U Test | Ordinal Logistic Regression | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before COVID-19 | During COVID-19 | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | ||
Tasting of local food during the stay in Greece | Strongly Disagree | 1.2% | 2.4% | <0.001 | 1.79 ** | 1.16, 2.77 |
Disagree | 6.3% | 4.3% | ||||
Neutral | 22.1% | 8.7% | ||||
Agree | 44.4% | 52.4% | ||||
Strongly Agree | 26.0% | 32.2% |
Variables | Travel Period | Mann–Whitney U Test | Ordinal Logistic Regression | Linear Regression | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before COVID-19 | During COVID-19 | p-Value | |||||||
Median | IR | Median | IR | OR | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | ||
Food and eating are important motives for travelling | 3 | 1 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.83 *** | 1.28, 2.62 | ||
Food and eating experiences are important when choosing a destination | 3 | 2 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.82 *** | 1.30, 2.56 | ||
Food and eating are important for travel satisfaction | 4 | 0 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.10 | 0.71, 1.70 | ||
I am interested in food and cuisine in general | 4 | 1 | 4 | 0 | <0.001 | 1.78 ** | 1.19, 2.64 | ||
I have good knowledge of food and cuisine in general | 3 | 1 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.65 ** | 1.15, 2.35 | ||
Attitude Toward Food(Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.878) | 3.4 | 1 | 4 | 4 | <0.001 | 0.15 * | 0.03, 0.27 |
Variables | Travel Period | Mann–Whitney U Test | Ordinal Logistic Regression | Linear Regression | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before COVID-19 | During COVID-19 | p-Value | OR | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | |||
Median | IR | Median | IR | ||||||
Experiencing local products increases my knowledge about different cultures | 4 | 1.25 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.36 | 0.84, 2.22 | ||
Tasting local products in an original place is an authentic experience | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.42 | 0.85, 2.36 | ||
Cultural Experience (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.898) | 4 | 1 | 4.5 | 1 | <0.001 | 0.15 * | 0.01, 0.28 | ||
It is important to me that the local products I eat on holiday look nice and taste good | 4 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 0.001 | 1.32 | 0.66, 2.64 | ||
Sensory Appeal | 4 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 0.001 | ||||
Experiencing local products in their original place excites me | 4 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 0.366 | 1.31 | 0.87, 1.99 | ||
Tasting local products on holiday helps me to relax | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0.009 | 1.17 | 0.82, 1.68 | ||
Excitement (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.745) | 3.5 | 1 | 4 | 0.5 | 0.047 | 0.03 | −0.09, 0.15 | ||
Tasting local products enables me to have an enjoyable time with friends/family | 4 | 1 | 4 | 0 | 0.313 | 0.73 | 0.48, 1.11 | ||
I like to talk to everybody about my local product experiences | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0.068 | 1.24 | 0.84, 1.81 | ||
I want to give advice about local product experiences to people who want to travel | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0.001 | 1.34 | 0.91, 1.97 | ||
Interpersonal Relation (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.831) | 3.67 | 1 | 4 | 0.67 | 0.028 | −0.03 | −0.14, 0.09 | ||
Local products contain a lot of fresh ingredients produced in a local area | 4 | 1 | 4 | 0 | <0.001 | 1.54 ** | 1.04, 2.31 | ||
Local food is nutritious | 3 | 1 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.92 | 1.34, 2.77 | ||
Tasting local food keeps me healthy | 3 | 1 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.78 ** | 1.26, 2.51 | ||
Health Concern (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.876) | 3.33 | 1 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 | 0.16 * | 0.04, 0.28 | ||
I am constantly sampling new and different food products | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0.076 | 1.24 | 0.86, 1.78 | ||
I usually do not avoid food products that I have not tasted before | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0.242 | 1.18 | 0.18, 1.70 | ||
Food Neophilia (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.690) | 3.5 | 1 | 4 | 1.5 | 0.071 | 0.07 | −0.07, 0.20 |
Variables | Travel Period | Mann–Whitney U Test | Ordinal Logistic Regression | Linear Regression | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Before COVID-19 | During COVID-19 | p-Value | |||||||
Median | IR | Median | IR | OR | 95% CI | β | 95% CI | ||
I am satisfied with the whole travel experience | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 0.303 | 1.22 | 0.57, 2.60 | ||
I am satisfied with the food that I tasted (products and services) | 4 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 0.001 | 0.87 | 0.53, 1.42 | ||
I am satisfied with the local food that I tasted | 4 | 1 | 4 | 1 | <0.001 | 1.37 | 0.89, 2.11 | ||
I will eat local food again at this destination | 4 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 0.024 | 1.83 * | 1.15, 2.93 | ||
I will recommend local food to my friends or relatives | 4 | 2 | 4 | 0 | 0.072 | 1.74 * | 1.12, 2.69 | ||
Food Satisfaction (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.926) | 4 | 1.25 | 4 | 1 | 0.001 | 0.10 | −0.01, 0.22 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2022 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Lazaridis, G.; Panaretos, D.; Matalas, A. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Food-Related Behaviour of Tourists Visiting Greece. Tour. Hosp. 2022, 3, 816-837. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp3040051
Lazaridis G, Panaretos D, Matalas A. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Food-Related Behaviour of Tourists Visiting Greece. Tourism and Hospitality. 2022; 3(4):816-837. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp3040051
Chicago/Turabian StyleLazaridis, Georgios, Dimitris Panaretos, and Antonia Matalas. 2022. "The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the Food-Related Behaviour of Tourists Visiting Greece" Tourism and Hospitality 3, no. 4: 816-837. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp3040051