Vicarious Trauma and Burnout Among Mental Health Professionals in Greece: The Role of Core Self-Evaluations, Self-Compassion, and Occupational Factors

Abstract

Mental health professionals are often confronted with clients’ traumatic narratives, which may lead to increased levels of vicarious trauma and burnout, especially when work-related risk factors are present. This study aims to investigate the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout among mental health professionals in Greece while taking into account work-related and intrapersonal factors using a sample of 266 mental health professionals, who completed the Core Self-Evaluations Scale, Self-Compassion Scale, Vicarious Trauma Scale, and Counselor Burnout Inventory, and provided information about work-related variables, such as caseload, clinical supervision, clinical training, and therapeutic experience. The findings showed that Greek mental health professionals’ burnout positively associated with vicarious trauma and caseload, while negatively associated with intrapersonal factors and work-related factors, namely, years of clinical supervision, clinical training and therapeutic experience. Vicarious trauma negatively correlated with core self-evaluations, self-compassion, and clinical experience. Finally, low core self-evaluations and self-compassion were found to explain greater burnout levels together with higher vicarious trauma and work overload per week, while core self-evaluations were the only variable that moderated the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout of Greek mental health professionals. These findings indicate that in order to address the interplay between vicarious trauma and burnout, targeted interventions that focus on personal attributes, coping strategies, and systemic organizational support are needed.

1. Introduction

1.1. Burnout of Mental Health Professionals

Professional burnout is a syndrome that occurs in professionals who provide services to people [1] and is considered as “resulting from chronic workplace stress that has not been successfully managed” [2]. Burnout among mental health professionals is a significant issue that impacts the quality and safety of care provided to patients, as well as the well-being of the professionals themselves [3,4]. Research indicates that burnout is characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and a reduced sense of personal accomplishment [5].

O’Connor et al. [4] found that more than 50% of mental health professionals experience moderate-to-severe levels of burnout, with emotional exhaustion being the most prevalent symptom. The factors contributing to burnout in mental health professionals are multifaceted [3]. Studies in Greece and worldwide highlighted that sociodemographic (e.g., age, gender), intrapersonal (e.g., coping, personality, self-care strategies), and work-related characteristics, including work settings and professional support (e.g., workload, personal therapy, and access to regular clinical supervision), are among the primary contributors [4,6].

Addressing burnout in mental health professionals thus requires a comprehensive approach. Interventions such as reducing caseloads, increasing peer support, and providing access to mental health resources for the professionals themselves have been shown to be effective [4,7]. West et al. [8] also found that mindfulness-based interventions, cognitive-behavioral strategies, and organizational changes were among the most effective methods for reducing burnout. These findings underscore the importance of systemic changes alongside personal coping strategies to effectively mitigate burnout of mental health professionals [9]. However, interventions for burnout could also be preventive, such as instructing students (or professionals) to be more attentive to their personal self-care. Addressing this issue is crucial not only for the well-being of mental health professionals but also for ensuring the quality and effectiveness of mental health services.

1.2. Vicarious Trauma and Burnout of Mental Health Professionals

Vicarious trauma, also known as secondary traumatic stress, refers to the emotional and psychological impact experienced by mental health professionals, who are indirectly exposed to their clients’ traumatic experiences [10]. Unlike burnout, which is generally associated with prolonged work-related stress, vicarious trauma specifically stems from empathetic engagement and deep involvement in the therapeutic process with clients who have experienced trauma [11]. Vicarious trauma can lead to changes in a professional’s cognitive schemas, particularly regarding safety, trust, control, independence, self-esteem, and closeness [12]. These shifts can manifest as intrusive phobic thoughts, emotional numbing, nightmares, constant vigilance, and avoidance behaviors, which not only affect the professional’s personal life but can also compromise their clinical effectiveness [10].

Vicarious trauma can lead to decreased empathy, impaired judgment, and increased risk of errors in clinical decision-making, ultimately affecting the therapeutic alliance and treatment outcomes [13]. At the same time, mental health professionals experiencing vicarious trauma are more likely to exhibit symptoms of anxiety, depression, and emotional exhaustion [14]. This not only affects the well-being of the professionals themselves but also puts the clients at risk, as the quality of care they receive may be diminished when therapists are struggling with their own psychological distress. Thus, early recognition and intervention, including regular supervision, peer support, trauma-informed organizational policies, and enhancement of self-care strategies and resilience training, can be effective at reducing the negative effects of vicarious trauma [10,15].

Vicarious trauma and professional burnout are frequently misrepresented in the literature, often being discussed as if they are synonymous or grouped together as a single condition [11]. However, their relationship seems particularly pronounced because both conditions share overlapping symptoms, such as emotional exhaustion, reduced empathy, and feelings of hopelessness [11]. Furthermore, vicarious trauma can act as a catalyst for burnout since the constant empathetic engagement with clients’ trauma narratives can wear down therapists’ emotional resilience over time, making it more difficult to maintain professional boundaries and personal well-being and leading to burnout symptoms, like emotional exhaustion and depersonalization [16,17]. A recent study in Greece highlighted the positive associations between empathy, vicarious trauma, and burnout of mental health professionals, underscoring the protective role of clinical supervision [18]. The effects of vicarious trauma on burnout increase when combined with other stressors, like heavy caseloads or inadequate organizational support [11,19]. Nevertheless, the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout among mental health professionals has not yet been fully explored in different cultural contexts since only a few moderators has been identified in European contexts, like in Greece [12,18].

1.3. Protective Factors Against Vicarious Trauma and Burnout of Mental Health Professionals

Recent research has identified several key protective factors against vicarious trauma and burnout among mental health professionals, including positive personality traits, self-care, social and organizational support, and supervision [19,20].

A significant factor affecting mental health professional’s work-related stress is their core self-evaluation. Core self-evaluation is a broad personality construct that reflects an individual’s fundamental appraisal of their own worthiness, competence, and capabilities. It encompasses four key components that shape how individuals perceive themselves and their ability to handle life’s challenges, namely, self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability [21,22].

Developing and maintaining a high level of core self-evaluation can serve as a protective factor against the negative effects of occupational stressors commonly faced by mental health professionals, such as vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue, and burnout. More specifically, professionals with higher core self-evaluation tend to exhibit greater resilience in the face of occupational stress, engage more in self-care, seek social support, and use positive reframing techniques, all of which are protective against the emotional toll of their work [23,24]. Moreover, they are more likely to exhibit confidence in their therapeutic skills, establish strong therapeutic alliances, maintain a positive outlook, effectively manage client challenges, and demonstrate greater emotional stability during interactions with clients, all of which contribute to more successful therapeutic interventions [25]. These professionals are also less likely to experience burnout symptoms, like self-doubt, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization, as well as symptoms of secondary traumatic stress, such as intrusive thoughts and emotional numbness [19,26]. This protective effect is attributed to professionals’ increased sense of control over their work environment and greater capacity to manage stress effectively, reducing the likelihood of burnout, even when they face heavy caseloads and emotionally demanding clients [26]. A way for mental health professionals to enhance their core self-evaluation based on previous findings is through engaging in self-reflective practices, receiving constructive feedback, and participating in professional development opportunities [24]. These core self-evaluation-enhancing strategies are extremely important for the training and supervision programs in order to support the well-being and professional effectiveness of mental health professionals.

Another self-related concept that shields individuals against stress, discomfort, and burnout is self-compassion. Self-compassion involves treating oneself with kindness, understanding, and acceptance during times of failure, distress, or perceived inadequacy [27]. It comprises three main components, namely, self-kindness (i.e., being gentle and understanding with oneself), common humanity (i.e., recognizing that suffering and personal shortcomings are part of the shared human experience), and mindfulness (i.e., maintaining a balanced awareness of one’s emotions without over-identifying them) [27].

For mental health professionals, self-compassion is extremely important, as it enables them to maintain an open and non-judgmental stance, which facilitates more effective therapeutic interventions, but also to acknowledge the emotional toll of their work without becoming overwhelmed, allowing them to be self-supportive and respond to their own emotional pain with understanding and kindness, rather than self-criticism, which is crucial in maintaining their capacity to provide effective care [28,29]. Thus, mental health professionals with higher levels of self-compassion tend to experience lower levels of burnout, vicarious trauma, and compassion fatigue, as they are better able to regulate their emotional responses and maintain professional boundaries [29].

Apart from intrapersonal factors, work-related variables also play a protective role against vicarious trauma and burnout among mental health professionals, with a low work overload and clinical supervision being key factors. Manageable caseloads reduce the risk of burnout by preventing professionals from becoming overwhelmed by excessive demands and feeling emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, which are core components of burnout [4]. Moreover, mental health professionals that have previous work experience with clients and access to supportive supervision report lower levels of burnout and vicarious trauma since they find ways to process their experiences and learn coping strategies, which collectively contribute to reducing the negative effects of their work [20].

Overall, prolonged exposure to untreated stress symptoms of vicarious trauma can trigger burnout in mental health professionals. Nevertheless, individual resources may contribute to the reduction of burnout [30]. Resources, such as a high core self-evaluation and self-compassion, can act as a suppressor against burnout [28].

1.4. The Purpose of the Present Study

The regulatory and training framework for mental health professionals in Greece differs significantly from that of many other countries. In Greece, psychologists can obtain licensure with just a Bachelor’s degree, and additional clinical or psychotherapeutic training is not mandatory. Similarly, psychiatrists are licensed after completing medical training and a psychiatry residency, but they are not automatically trained in psychotherapy; acquiring psychotherapeutic skills requires additional, optional training beyond their licensure. Taking these into account, the present study aims to further investigate the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout among mental health professionals in Greece (for previous studies, look at [18]), while taking into account (a) work-related factors (namely, work experience, work overload, clinical training, personal therapy, and clinical supervision) and (b) intrapersonal factors (i.e., core self-evaluations and self-compassion). The study focuses on answering the following research questions:

Research question 1: Do core self-evaluations, self-compassion, vicarious trauma, work-related variables, and burnout among mental health professionals inter-relate?

Research question 2: Do core self-evaluations, self-compassion, vicarious trauma, and work-related variables explain the levels of Greek mental health professionals’ burnout?

Research question 3: Do core self-evaluations and self-compassion moderate the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout among Greek mental health professionals?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants

This study involved 266 Greek mental health professionals. Among them, 88% were women, with an average age of 35 (SD = 10.85). Specifically, 49% were aged 24 to 30, 17% were between 31 and 36, 11% fell within the 37 to 42 age range, 12% were aged 43 to 48, 6% were between 49 and 54, and 5% were over 66 years old. In terms of professional specialization, the sample comprised psychologists (86%), psychiatrists (2%), psychotherapists (6%), and counselors (6%).

Considering the job-related characteristics of the participants, a majority of them (74.4%) had received counseling or psychotherapy training for more than four years. Regarding clinical experience, 25% had 1 to 4 years, another 25% had 5 to 8 years, 23% had 9 to 12 years, and 27% had 13 to 16 years of clinical experience. Most participants engaged in personal therapy sessions (51.9%) and underwent supervision (85.7%) during the study. Specifically, 4% had never been therapy clients, 32% had been clients for 1 to 2 years, 33% for 3 to 5 years, 15% for 6 to 9 years, and 16% for over 10 years. Additionally, 5% had never undergone supervision, 59% had 1 to 3 years of supervision, 26% had 4 to 9 years, and 10% had over 10 years. Finally, 33% of the sample provided 1 to 10 sessions per week, 34% provided 11 to 20 sessions, and 33% provided 21 to 50 sessions per week.

2.2. Measures

2.2.1. Personal and Work-Related Demographics

An improvised questionnaire was used to gather information regarding the participants’ demographics, i.e., gender, age, level of education, marital status, number of children, specialty, years of clinical experience and training, years of clinical supervision, number of sessions per week, and vicarious trauma experiences.

2.2.2. Core Self-Evaluations

The Greek version [31] of the Core Self-Evaluations Scale (CSES) [23] was used to measure positive self-concept. The scale consists of twelve items that measure self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus of control, and neuroticism. The CSES provides only a total score. A sample item is “I complete tasks successfully”. The participants were asked to rate the statements on a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree). The alpha coefficient for the CSES in this study was 0.84.

2.2.3. Self-Compassion

The Greek version [32] of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS) [27] was used to measure trait levels of self-compassion. The scale consists of twenty-six items that measure self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness, as well as their negative counterparts, i.e., self-judgement, isolation, and over-identification. Sample items are “I try to be loving toward myself when I’m feeling emotional pain” and “I try to see my failings as part of the human condition”. The participants were asked to rate the statements on a 5-point scale (1 = Almost never to 5 = Almost always). Both a total score and six subscores can be computed [33]. In the present study, the total score was used and the SCS demonstrated adequate internal consistency levels (α = 0.94).

2.2.4. Vicarious Trauma

The Vicarious Trauma Scale (VTS) [34] was used to measure vicarious trauma using eight items. A sample item is “My job involved exposure to distressing materials and experiences”. The participants were asked to rate the sentences on a seven-point Likert-type scale (1 = Does not represent me at all to 7 = Represents me completely). The VTS proved to be a reliable and valid measure [35]. Moreover, it has been used in previous studies in Greece demonstrating adequate psychometric properties [18]. In this study, the internal consistency of the scale was α = 0.77.

2.2.5. Mental Health Professionals’ Burnout

The Greek version [36] of the Counselor Burnout Inventory (CBI) [37] was used to measure burnout of mental health professionals. The CBI consists of twenty items that provide a total score and subscores of five factors, namely, exhaustion, incomplete, negative work environment, devaluing clients, and deterioration in personal life. Sample items are “I feel exhausted due to my work as a counselor” and “I am not confident in my counseling skills”. The participants were asked to rate the items using a five-point Likert-type scale (1 = Never to 5 = Always). In the present study, the total score was used, and its internal consistency coefficient was 0.83.

2.3. Procedure

The study protocol received approval from the Ethics Committee of the University of Thessaly (No. 4/9-5-2023). The participants had to be mental health professionals engaged in counseling or psychotherapy in Greece, with no restrictions based on gender, age, education, or years of service. Those not actively practicing as counselors or psychotherapists during the data collection period were excluded. A convenient sampling method was employed, involving invitations sent to various organizations, scientific associations, social media groups of mental health professionals, and professionals within the researchers’ professional network. The participants were briefed on the study’s objectives, the confidentiality of their responses, and their right to withdraw, after which they provided informed consent. Participation in the study did not result in discomfort, expose the participants to danger, or have any negative consequences for them or their professional endeavors. Data collection took place during January and February 2023 and was facilitated through the use of Google Forms.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

The data were analyzed using the IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences 26 [38], along with the IBM SPSS PROCESS v.5.0 command [39]. Initially, descriptive statistics of the study variables and a normality analysis were conducted. We tested whether the data for each variable significantly deviated from a normal distribution using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov (K-S) test (correcting the K-S test for small values at the tails of probability distributions by adopting Lilliefors test), and the results show that all variables follow a normal distribution. Subsequently, correlations between the study variables were examined, followed by multiple regression analysis to identify variables explaining levels of burnout among mental health professionals. Finally, moderation analysis was performed to investigate the moderating effects of core self-evaluations and self-compassion on the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout. Below, the results are delineated in response to the study’s research questions.

3. Results

3.1. Descriptive Statistics

The participants reported a mean core self-evaluations score of 40.64 (SD = 5.93) on the CSES, with a maximum possible score of 60. The average self-compassion level was 86.00 (SD = 16.24) on the SCS, with a maximum possible score of 130. Additionally, the participants had mean scores of 29.23 (SD = 7.94) for vicarious trauma on the VTS, which has a maximum score of 36, and 44.71 (SD = 11.29) for burnout on the CBI, with a maximum score of 100 (see

Table 1. Descriptive analysis results of protective factors, vicarious trauma, and burnout of mental health professionals (n = 266).

Variables	Mean (SD)
Core self-evaluations	40.64 (5.93)
Self-compassion	86.00 (16.24)
Vicarious trauma	29.23 (7.94)
Burnout	44.71 (11.29)

Note: Minimum value = 1 and maximum value = 5, apart from Vicarious Trauma Scale (max = 7).

).

3.2. Correlations Between Positive Self-Image, Self-Compassion, Vicarious Trauma, Job-Related Variables, and Burn-Out of Mental Health Professionals

To address the first research question, we tested for significant correlations between the participants’ core self-evaluations, self-compassion, vicarious trauma, job-related variables, and burnout (see

Table 2. Correlations between positive self-image, self-compassion, vicarious trauma, job-related variables, and burn-out of mental health professionals (n = 266).

Variables	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
1. Core self-evaluations	-
2. Self-compassion	0.71 ***	-
3. Vicarious trauma	−0.39 ***	−0.36 ***	-
4. Burnout	−0.61 ***	−0.57 ***	0.59 ***	-
5. Years of personal therapy	0.12	0.10	−0.05	−0.09	-
6. Years of supervision	0.21 **	0.21 **	−0.07	−0.19 **	0.60 ***	-
7. Years of clinical training	0.21 **	0.17 *	−0.04	−0.17 *	0.40 ***	0.36 ***	-
8. Years of clinical experience	0.26 ***	0.21 **	−0.18 **	−0.14 *	0.39 ***	0.65 ***	0.30 ***	-
9. No of sessions per week	0.03	0.05	0.04	0.13 *	0.08	0.23 ***	0.20 **	0.20 **	-

Note: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001 (two-tailed).

). The results indicate statistically significant positive correlations between the counselors’ burnout and the number of sessions per week (r_s(266) = 0.13, p = 0.033), as well as vicarious trauma (r_s(266) = 0.59, p < 0.001). Significant negative correlations were found between burnout and core self-evaluations (r_s(266) = −0.61, p = <0.001), self-compassion (r_s(266) = −0.57, p < 0.001), years of supervision (r_s(266) = −0.19, p = 0.005), years of clinical training (r_s(266) = −0.17, p = 0.014), and years of clinical experience (r_s(266) = −0.14, p = 0.020). Additionally, vicarious trauma was negatively correlated with the mental health professionals’ core self-evaluations (r_s(266) = −0.39, p < 0.001), self-compassion (r_s(266) = −0.36, p < 0.001), and years of clinical experience (r_s(266) = −0.18, p = 0.003).

3.3. Core Self-Evaluations, Self-Compassion, Vicarious Trauma, and Number of Sessions per Week Explained the Levels of Mental Health Professionals’ Burnout

In order to address the second research question, we examined the impact of core self-evaluations, self-compassion, vicarious trauma, and work-related variables on mental health professionals’ burnout. With a sample size of 266 participants, we ensured sufficient power to detect significant predictors of burnout, minimizing type II errors. The model assumptions were met.

The model was significant (F(4,262) = 49.651, p < 0.001), indicating that four predictors significantly affect mental health professional’s burnout (see

Table 3. Multiple regression analysis for the prediction of mental health professionals’ burnout (n = 266).

Predictors	b	SE b	Β	p
(Burnout)	69.80	5.81		<0.001
Core self-evaluations	−0.74	0.15	−0.37	<0.001
Vicarious trauma	0.51	0.08	0.34	<0.001
Self-compassion	−0.16	0.05	−0.23	0.002
Number of sessions per week	0.17	0.06	0.16	0.003

). The model explains 56% of the variance in mental health professional’s burnout, with an adjusted R² of 0.55. More specifically, core self-evaluations were a significant predictor (t(262) = −4.963, p < 0.001), as well as self-compassion (t(262) = −3.096, p = 0.002), indicating a negative effect on burnout. Additionally, vicarious trauma (t(262) = 6.037, p < 0.001) and number of sessions per week (t(262) = 3.034, p = 0.003) were also significant predictors, indicating a positive effect on the mental health professionals’ burnout. On the other hand, years of clinical experience, clinical training, personal therapy, and supervision were found to be insignificant predictors of the mental health professionals’ burnout.

In detail, the intercept β₀ was estimated at 69.80 points, implying an average burnout baseline when all independent variables are held at zero. Core self-evaluations emerged as a significant factor, with a 0.74-point decrease in burnout scores (β₁), while heightened vicarious trauma levels were associated with a 0.51-point increase in the mental health professionals’ burnout (β₂). Moreover, greater self-compassion was associated with an additional 0.16-point decrease in burnout levels (β₃), whereas each additional hour of sessions per week increased the mental health professionals’ burnout levels (β₄) by 0.18 points.

3.4. Core Self-Evaluations Moderated the Relationship Between Vicarious Trauma and Burnout Among Mental Health Professionals

To address the third research question and based on the regression analyses’ findings, we examined the possible moderating role of core self-evaluations and self-compassion on the relationship between vicarious trauma and the mental health professionals’ burnout.

The only variable that significantly served as a moderator between vicarious trauma and the mental health professional’s burnout was the core self-evaluations. More specifically, the hierarchical regression analysis showed that vicarious trauma and core self-evaluations account for a significant amount of variance in the mental health professionals’ burnout (R² = 0.55, F(2, 264) = 152.818, p < 0.001). When the interaction vicarious trauma × core self-evaluations was added to the regression model, it explained an additional amount of wellbeing variance (ΔR² = 0.02, ΔF(1, 265) = 5.017, p = 0.026), thus supporting the moderating role of core self-evaluations in the relationship between vicarious trauma and the mental health professionals’ burnout (see

Table 4. The moderating role of core self-evaluations in the relationship between vicarious trauma and mental health professionals’ burnout (n = 266).

Predictors	B	SE B	t	p
(Burnout)	44.33 [43.26, 45.39]	0.54	82.214	<0.001
Vicarious trauma	0.54 [0.40, 0.69]	0.07	7.288	<0.001
Core self-evaluations	−0.91 [−1.14, −0.69]	0.11	−7.945	<0.001
Vicarious trauma × core self-evaluations	−0.02 [−0.04, −0.00]	0.01	−2.240	0.026

).

Examination of the simple slopes showed that at the low levels of core self-evaluations, there is a significant positive relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout (b = 0.66, 95% CI [0.49, 0.83], t = 7.424, p < 0.001; see Figure 1). This relationship remains positive but weakens at mean levels of core self-evaluations (b = 0.54, 95% CI [0.40, 0.69], t =7.288, p < 0.001) and weakens even more when core self-evaluations are greater (b = 0.43, 95% CI [0.25, 0.61], t = 4.647, p < 0.001). This finding suggests that core self-evaluations serve a protective role against the effects of vicarious trauma on mental health professionals’ burnout. Additionally, as illustrated in Figure 1, greater core self-evaluations mitigate the relationship between vicarious trauma and the mental health professionals’ burnout.

4. Discussion

The present study aimed to shed light on the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout among mental health professionals in Greece while considering significant intrapersonal and work-related factors. The findings show that the mental health professionals’ burnout positively associated with vicarious trauma and number of sessions per week, while it negatively associated with intrapersonal factors, i.e., core self-evaluations and self-compassion, and work-related factors, namely, supervision, clinical training, and experience. Vicarious trauma of Greek mental health professionals negatively correlated to core self-evaluations, self-compassion, and clinical experience. Interestingly, personal therapy was not found to be significantly associated with both burnout and vicarious trauma. Finally, low core self-evaluations and self-compassion were found to explain greater burnout levels, together with higher vicarious trauma and work overload per week, while the core self-evaluations was the only variable that moderated the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout of mental health professionals.

Consistent with previous research, high core self-evaluations serve as a protective factor against burnout and vicarious trauma among mental health professionals in Greece. Professionals with high core self-evaluations perceive themselves as capable of managing the challenges of their work and personal lives due to higher levels of self-esteem, self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability [21,22]. They typically report lower levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization—key components of burnout—compared with those with a more negative self-image [26]. This protective effect is linked to their enhanced sense of control over their work environment and their greater ability to manage stress, which helps reduce burnout risk, even when dealing with heavy caseloads or emotionally taxing clients [24,26]. Additionally, mental health professionals with greater core self-evaluations are less prone to vicarious trauma symptoms, as they tend to maintain healthy boundaries, compartmentalize work-related stress effectively, and use adaptive coping strategies, all while establishing strong therapeutic alliances with clients [19,25]. Corroborating previous literature, the findings of this study suggest that core self-evaluations play a protective role against the impact of vicarious trauma on burnout among mental health professionals [16,17,18]. This finding, that core self-evaluations moderate the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout among mental health professionals, is particularly noteworthy. It distinguishes the current study from previous research and provides an incremental contribution to the existing body of knowledge.

Another intrapersonal factor that was found to be associated with less burnout among Greek mental health professionals in line with previous research findings is self-compassion. Self-compassion enables them to manage the intense emotional demands of their work without becoming overwhelmed by negative self-evaluations or excessive guilt. By cultivating a kind and supportive inner dialogue, these professionals can buffer themselves against the stressors that often lead to burnout, regulate their emotional responses, and maintain professional boundaries, allowing them to sustain their capacity to care for others effectively [28,29]. Moreover, self-compassion encourages mental health professionals to engage in proactive self-care, which is crucial for preventing burnout. When professionals approach their own needs with the same care and concern they offer their clients, they are more likely to recognize when they need rest, support, or other forms of self-care. This proactive approach can prevent the buildup of stress and emotional exhaustion that often precedes burnout and vicarious trauma [40]. By integrating self-compassion into their professional lives, mental health professionals can create a sustainable practice that supports both their well-being and their ability to provide high-quality care [40].

Apart from the intrapersonal factors, the present study findings indicate that work-related factors, such as supervision, clinical training and experience, and caseload closely associate with burnout and vicarious trauma of mental health professionals in Greece. To start with, clinical supervision is widely recognized as a critical protective factor against burnout and vicarious trauma. Supervision provides mental health professionals with a space to process their clinical experiences through reflection, receive feedback, gain emotional support, and develop work-related resilience, which can help mitigate the emotional toll of working with traumatized clients and leads to lower levels of burnout and vicarious trauma [18,20,41]. However, the quality and frequency of supervision are key; irregular or inadequate supervision can leave professionals feeling unsupported and increase the risk of burnout [20,41].

Moreover, years of clinical experience and training are generally associated with lower levels of burnout and vicarious trauma, as seasoned professionals often have more developed resilience, emotional regulation skills, professional boundaries, and clinical skills. Also, experienced mental health professionals are typically better at recognizing the signs of burnout and implementing preventive strategies, such as self-care and boundary-setting [42,43]. In addition to clinical training and experience, manageable caseloads and avoidance of prolonged client sessions reduce the risk of burnout and vicarious traumatization by preventing professionals from becoming overwhelmed by excessive demands and feeling emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, which are core components of burnout [4]. Moreover, high caseloads reduce the time available for self-care, supervision, and reflection, thereby exacerbating stress and diminishing job satisfaction [30].

To deepen our understanding of the findings, it is valuable to consider them within the broader cultural and philosophical landscape of Greece. Greek conceptions of mental health have long been shaped by classical thought, emphasizing balance, virtue, and harmony in human relationships. For example, Hippocrates viewed health as a holistic integration of mind and body [44], while Aristotle’s idea of eudaimonia—living a life of virtue and purpose—continues to influence how well-being is understood in Greek society today [45]. In modern Greek culture, values such as filotimo—a deeply rooted moral sense of honor, empathy, and duty to others—remain central [46]. While this strong sense of ethical responsibility can inspire and sustain professionals in helping roles, it may also lead to emotional exhaustion and vulnerability to vicarious trauma and burnout. At the same time, the emphasis on close-knit family ties and community support may offer important protective resources [47]. Although the concept of self-compassion has not traditionally held a prominent place in Greek discourse—often overshadowed by ideals of resilience and stoicism—there are philosophical precedents. Hellenistic schools, such as Stoicism and Epicureanism, advocated for emotional self-regulation, self-acceptance, and finding peace within adversity [48], which resonate with contemporary understandings of self-compassion. Compared with Western models that tend to prioritize autonomy, emotional independence, and cognitive control, the Greek perspective places greater emphasis on interconnectedness, moral identity, and existential meaning. Bringing these cultural–philosophical foundations into the conversation not only enriches our conceptualization of the Greek mental health professionals’ experience but also highlights the importance of culturally attuned approaches in psychological practice. Moreover, the fact that all authors are Greek mental health professionals or academic researchers in psychology offers valuable insights on the cultural and professional context examined in this study. This shared background strengthens the study by fostering deeper cultural sensitivity, contextual understanding, and relevance to the lived experiences of Greek practitioners.

4.1. Limitations and Recommendations for Future Studies

The present study has several limitations that should be addressed in future research. First, the study utilized a single timepoint, self-report survey method that relied solely on Likert-type scales to measure the variables, which may have introduced response biases, such as social desirability. Additionally, the use of convenience sampling limited the diversity of the sample, as the participants were drawn from a restricted network, potentially affecting the generalizability of the findings. Another limitation is the lack of consideration of sociodemographic factors and other relevant work-related variables, such as the types of clients the mental health professionals work with. For instance, therapists treating individuals with personality disorders or those who have experienced domestic violence may be at higher risk for burnout or vicarious trauma [49]. Future studies should aim to incorporate a broader range of variables and diverse sampling methods to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the factors influencing mental health professionals’ experiences of burnout and vicarious trauma. Additionally, qualitative or mixed-methods studies, data collection from both clients and therapists, and longitudinal research designs could shed more light on the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout, especially in the Greek cultural context.

4.2. Contributions of the Findings

The findings of the present study highlight the significance of core self-evaluations, i.e., holding a positive self-image, to bounce back from occupational stressors while underlining the complementary protective role of self-compassion and manageable caseload against vicarious trauma and burnout among mental health professionals. These findings indicate that addressing the interplay between vicarious trauma and burnout requires targeted interventions that focus on personal attributes, coping strategies, and systemic organizational support. Fostering a positive self-image becomes a psychological resource that enhances resilience, supports mental well-being, and ultimately sustains the capacity of mental health professionals to provide high-quality care. Thus, designing preventive programs that target burnout and vicarious trauma need to integrate the construction of stronger core self-evaluations. These programs need to be implemented during clinical training and supervision throughout the therapeutic cycle combined with other, evidence-based strategies, such as peer support groups, self-care education, trauma-informed training, mindfulness techniques, and organizational support practices (e.g., manageable caseloads) [8,11,12,19].

5. Conclusions

This study aimed to explore the relationship between vicarious trauma and burnout among mental health professionals in Greece, with a focus on key intrapersonal and work-related factors. The findings underscore the critical role of core self-evaluations as a protective factor, enabling professionals to better manage and recover from occupational stressors. Even though this exploratory study’s results are suggestive but not conclusive, these insights contribute to the existing literature by emphasizing the importance of enhancing positive self-perception in preventive programs aimed at reducing burnout and vicarious trauma among mental health professionals.