A Fresh Look at Freshwaters—River Literacy Principles for the Environmental Education of Riverside Communities Affected by Water Scarcity, Desertification and Transboundary River Pollution

Abstract

The sustainable management of water resources requires experts and also citizens who understand the hydrosphere and its key functions. To educate the public about water-related issues, various water literacy concepts have been developed. However, many of these concepts are too complex for people to understand. In contrast, the ocean literacy framework effectively translates knowledge into behavioral changes and actions. The Danube River, known as the world’s most international river, has a catchment area shared by 19 countries. This river basin has experienced unprecedented landscape alterations, floods, droughts, and pollution events, highlighting the need for a new approach to environmental education. Additionally, globally, more people live near rivers than by the ocean. To empower members of riverside communities with water literacy, we aimed to adapt the ocean literacy principles into river literacy principles. In this study, we introduce a novel concept of river literacy, consisting of seven principles. This framework aims to support sustainable development goals through education and to restore and revive damaged freshwater habitats more effectively. The principles were tested in formal education across five countries. The results indicate that participants in river literacy programs became more motivated to protect rivers, and their understanding of fluvial geography and riverine pollution improved.

1. Introduction

Modern societies are increasingly facing the consequences of long-term land drainage, land-use changes, and disrupted natural water cycles, resulting in extreme weather events such as floods and droughts. While water plays a critical role on Earth, the public understanding of this vital resource remains insufficient. Citizens need to be knowledgeable about water issues, especially as society’s ability to adapt and become resilient is increasingly important [1]. The hydrosphere, which includes various sub-systems (i.e., oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, subsurface waters, and atmospheric water), is one of the most complex systems. Knowledge levels about these subsystems vary significantly. The existing water literacy concepts should include the entire hydrosphere and all forms of water. Additionally, plant and soil literacy should be integrated into water management discussions, as vegetation and soil significantly influence runoff, evapotranspiration, water cycles, and climate at local, regional, and global levels. In this paper, we provide an overview of existing water literacy concepts and propose a new framework for improved understanding and management of rivers.

1.1. Water Literacy Concepts

The various definitions (17) of water literacy, as reviewed by McCarroll and Hamann [2], reveal a lack of consensus on its meaning and applications. The core concept of water literacy encompasses a combination of water-related knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors, serving as a foundation for sustainable water management and social equity in water usage. Fielding et al. [3] proposed a straightforward definition, describing water literacy simply as “water-related knowledge.” The concept was initially introduced by Su et al. [4] from the very narrow perspective of water consumption, focusing on the understanding of water usage and the health implications of water quality. This interpretation emphasises human health, particularly in the context of climate change, which can lead to extreme precipitation that has both direct consequences (e.g., loss of life) and indirect consequences (e.g., spread of epidemics). Otaki et al. [5] later redefined water literacy as the ability to feel comfortable with water, actively engage with water issues, and view these challenges as personal responsibilities. This definition emphasises the significance of individual daily water use, focusing on topics such as delivery, treatment, quality, and quantity. Imaduddin and Eilks [6] expanded the idea of water literacy by emphasising responsible water use, effective water management, and social water justice. They also highlighted that cultural and religious beliefs influence knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to water. McCarroll and Hamann [2] acknowledged that water literacy covers a broad range of topics, making it challenging to pinpoint the most significant ones, especially for target groups that may have little to no experience or interest in water-related matters. Engaging with water issues often depends on an individual’s personal experiences, such as living in a flood-prone area, having a garden, or facing water restrictions [7,8].

The “New Water Paradigm” [9] provides a comprehensive understanding of water cycles. It emphasises the connection between land drainage and altered landscapes, the formation of heat islands, spatiotemporal changes in precipitation patterns, alterations in water cycles, the impact of climate change, and how the processes could be reversed.

McCarroll and Hamann [2] refer to various themes associated with water literacy as “knowledge sets”. Each knowledge set (class or level) offers a more specific insight into water-related topics while being embedded within a broader understanding of water issues. Interestingly, the first level of general knowledge does not differentiate between various hydrospheric sub-systems (e.g., ocean, rivers), despite their unique and complex scientific backgrounds. The second level includes scientific, hydro-social, and local knowledge, which builds upon this general understanding. The third level focuses on functional knowledge related to protecting, restoring, or utilizing water resources. Finally, the last level encompasses knowledge of action, reflecting individual or collective attitudes and values.

Otaki et al. [5] categorized water literacy into three distinct levels, each representing a different social scale. However, Otaki’s concept of literacy is somewhat narrow as it primarily focuses on water consumption.

Dean et al. [8] introduced similar categories, referred to as “engagement levels,” that address various water-related issues. The significance of these categories or levels lies in the differing emphases found in related studies; some highlight cognitive understanding, while others focus on emotional or behavioral engagement. (1) The practical water literacy identified by Otaki et al. [5] closely aligns with the “cognitive engagement” level described by Dean et al. [8]. This level reflects an individual’s knowledge regarding a specific topic, such as the essential quantity and quality of water required for human survival [5]. (2) The living water literacy proposed by Otaki et al. [5] corresponds to Dean et al.’s [8] “emotional engagement,” which evaluates individuals’ attitudes toward water-related issues, whether they care about and value water. According to Otaki et al. [5], water literacy encompasses an individual’s capability to use water wisely in both domestic and social contexts. (3) Lastly, social water literacy pertains to the willingness to act responsibly and make sound decisions regarding water usage for the benefit of society as a whole [5]. This aligns with the “behavioural engagement” level defined by Dean et al. [8].

Additionally, Su et al. [4] categorized water literacy based on educational levels (i.e., primary, secondary, higher education) and a prevention framework (i.e., before, immediately after, or long after a water-related disaster). Imaduddin and Eilks [6] emphasised the importance of mandatory formal education about water, although school curricula often provide limited knowledge on the complexities of water systems.

In conclusion, water literacy frameworks offer a comprehensive understanding of the hydrosphere, encompassing its diverse water types, services, and associated risks. However, their effectiveness in enhancing public awareness of water-related issues is limited, as the complexity of the hydrosphere cannot be easily captured in a single educational model. A notable exception to this is the concept of ocean literacy, which effectively conveys more specific knowledge to the public.

1.2. The Ocean Literacy Framework

Ocean literacy is an approach that transforms knowledge about the oceans into behavioral changes and actions that promote sustainability [10]. It was established in the early 2000s in the USA by scientists and education professionals coordinated by the Centers for Ocean Sciences Education Excellence (COSEE) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). These experts recognized the lack of ocean-related subjects in formal education and developed a framework to create a more ocean-literate society [10,11]. It is a global and formal educational initiative focused on marine and coastal issues, with a strong emphasis on motivation [6]. The key idea of ocean literacy is to “know and understand the ocean’s influence on us, and our influence on the ocean is crucial to living and acting sustainably” [12]. French et al. [11] highlighted that an “ocean-literate person” understands the role of the ocean in human life and can make responsible decisions regarding the ocean and its resources. Ocean literacy encompasses seven principles (

Table 1. Principles of ocean literacy (source: [12]).

Principle	Fundamental Concepts
The Earth has one big ocean with many features.	Ocean sub-basins and their geographical features are interconnected. Oceanic circulation has a significant impact on climate and ecosystems. Sea level changes. Unique properties of seawater. Importance of the water cycle.
2. The ocean and life in the ocean shape the features of Earth.	Role of oceans in geochemical cycles. Evolution of coastal areas.
3. The ocean is a major influence on weather and climate.	Interaction with the atmosphere. Influence on weather and climate, and climate change. Role in the carbon cycle
4. The ocean makes Earth habitable.	Providing water and oxygen necessary for life. Life was born in the ocean. Moderating climate and supporting life.
5. The ocean supports a great diversity of life and ecosystems.	Home to a wide variety of organisms. Unique biological features. Wide spatial range of habitats.
6. The ocean and humans are inextricably interconnected.	The ocean influences human lives. It provides various resources. It has cultural aspects. Human impacts on the ocean (regulations, pollutions, physical and biological impacts). Natural hazards in coastal regions. Everyone is responsible for the ocean.
7. The ocean is largely unexplored.	Largest unexplored place on Earth. Scientific work is desired to understand the ocean. An interdisciplinary approach and collaborations are needed.

), which aim to broaden knowledge about the ocean and its interconnected systems while promoting the development of appropriate behaviors towards the ocean and its resources.

McKinley et al. [10] identified ten dimensions of ocean literacy: knowledge, awareness, attitude, behaviour, activism, communication, emotional connections, access and experience, adaptive capacity, trust and transparency. In addition to emphasising the importance of ocean literacy, McKinley et al. [10] also highlighted its weaknesses. They recommended using appropriate terminology, incorporating local knowledge, placing a greater emphasis on problem-solving, promoting behavioral changes at the institutional level, enhancing media communication about the ocean, and making “Emoceans” a central component of literacy.

Decades after the introduction of the ocean literacy framework, the concept has yielded significant results, demonstrating its educational potential and applicability. The United Nations has incorporated ocean literacy into its global goals as part of the Decade of Ocean Science (2021–2030). To support education on this topic worldwide, the “Ocean Literacy for All Toolkit” was published [13]. Following that, the New Water Paradigm [14] was developed to enhance the understanding of the connections between ocean, freshwater, and river systems. It emphasizes that the global water cycle is a common good facing increasing instability, making it the shared responsibility of both international and local communities to ensure its restoration. In 2018, the European Union integrated ocean literacy into the Blue Schools Network [15] and the EU4Ocean initiatives [16]. A recent EU mission (Restore our Oceans and Waters; [17]) is dedicated to raising awareness about the relationship between oceans and freshwater systems, highlighting their interconnection through various water cycles and scales (small, large, and global). In conclusion, concentrating on a subsystem of the hydrosphere, such as oceans or rivers, can enhance overall understanding and, consequently, contribute to the preservation of these vital water resources.

1.3. Fresh Concepts for Freshwaters—Catchment-Scale Water Literacy Concepts

The importance of a holistic and specific understanding of water was highlighted by Kravčík et al. [9], who emphasised the significance of small water cycles, local precipitation, and local water planning in their concept of the “New Water Paradigm”. They tested this concept in various areas [18]. Similarly, the NOAA recognized that effective protection of coastal and marine areas requires education about local catchments, advocating for clear and simple messages about water. They stressed the necessity of developing the knowledge, attitudes, and skills of individuals living in a given catchment area to successfully protect marine, coastal, and lacustrine ecosystems [19].

Examples indicate an increasing need for a catchment-scale approach when developing key messages and teaching water literacy. Hensley [20] highlighted that many individuals are unaware of what a catchment is or how floods occur. Consequently, Hensley [20] emphasized the importance of educating people more thoroughly about catchment-scale processes. Several studies have been conducted on mapping knowledge related to catchment-based processes [21,22] and catchment literacy [23]. However, these studies did not define catchment literacy precisely; their questionnaire-based research focused on assessing knowledge of basic catchment concepts, as well as attitudes and activities related to the fluvial environment. Therefore, a new approach to understanding freshwater systems is necessary. In this context, we aimed to adapt ocean literacy by using the Danube River Basin as a case study area, which has experienced significant landscape changes.

1.4. The Danube Basin—An Experimental Flask for River Basin Management Issues

The Danube is considered the most international river in the world, as its catchment area (817,000 km²) is shared by 19 countries (Figure 1a). At the heart of this region lies the Pannonian Basin (300,000 km²), where four major tributaries—the Morava, Tisza, Dráva, and Sava—join the Danube. Prior to significant landscape alterations that began in the mid-19th century, natural water bodies made up more than 10% of the Pannonian Basin. The extent and structure of these surface waters in medieval times have been visualised using artificial intelligence [24]. The area of rivers, lakes, marshes, and swamps expanded following floods, leading to adaptations in floodplain farming, fishing, shipping, and the region’s culture and traditions that aligned with the natural flooding patterns [25,26]. The total length of riverbanks and lakeshores (150,000 km) also reflected this rich aquatic environment [27].

It is difficult to foresee the potential socio-economic consequences if Finland were to lose most of its freshwater resources, which cover approximately 10% of the total land area (around 34,000 km²) [27]. However, a similar situation has occurred in the Pannonian Basin since the 1850s. For instance, along the Tisza River, a tributary of the Danube, river regulation efforts led to the cutting off of 112 meanders. As a result, the Tisza lost one-third of its original length, shortening from 1419 km to 962 km [28]. Simultaneously, artificial flood mitigation levees were constructed along the river, reducing the area of floodplains by more than 90% (Figure 1b; [29]). Other rivers in the Danubian catchment underwent similar transformations [30]. Furthermore, the area of wetlands and riparian zones in the central lowland region of the Pannonian Basin has decreased by 85%, making it the second largest loss of such areas in the world, only surpassed by Ireland [31]. Consequently, countries in the Pannonian Basin are left with only fragments of their original freshwater bodies. For example, in Hungary, the combined area of rivers and lakes now measures just 1600 km², compared to the historical total of 10,000 km².

In the Danube catchment area, rivers continue to play a crucial role in shaping both the landscape and the culture. However, in the Pannonian Basin, the decline of surface waters has led to a decrease in both recreational activities, such as rowing and ecotourism, and commercial activities, including fishing and shipping. This situation worsened with a ban on traditional fishing, which had supported a sustainable lifestyle for riverside communities for millennia [32]. Fish farms that rely on artificial lakes often face significant water shortages [33]. The quantitative reduction of surface waters in the Pannonian Basin is further complicated by deteriorating water quality, mainly due to large-scale agriculture and industrialization. In post-socialist countries, pollution from abandoned mines and factories remains a critical issue. The most catastrophic event occurred in 2000 when a cyanide spill contaminated the Somes/Szamos River and subsequently the Tisza River [34]. In 2022, chemicals from an abandoned iron ore mine polluted the Sajó/Slana River [35]. Additionally, the collapse of a subsurface salt mine in 2025 caused polluted floods on the Maros River [36]. Another emerging challenge is the transport of macro- and microplastics through the river system. The Danube carries approximately 1500 tons of plastic into the Black Sea annually [37]. Contrary to popular belief, rivers do not simply act as conveyors for pollution; they also filter it. Riparian vegetation and fluvial sediments play a crucial role in waste retention. For instance, in the Tisza floodplain, thousands of litter accumulations have formed, resulting in about 1.65 tons of plastic per river kilometer [38]. One of the significant challenges facing the region is the lack of environmental liability insurance for major potential polluters and hazardous sites. Eco- and rural tourism also suffer from severe issues due to industrial pollution and the impact of municipal waste.

In conclusion, large-scale changes to the landscape often lead to significant economic and cultural impacts. In the Danube Basin, local communities have been facing increasing water stress since the mid-19th century due to a severe decline in water supplies and ongoing pollution—long before the effects of global climate change began to be felt. As a result, the historical connections that once existed between wetland-based communities and their rivers and lakes have been disrupted. To help restore the connection between the remaining riverside communities and their rivers, we initiated an international environmental educational program that adapts the ocean literacy framework to address the specific needs of local, riverside communities.

1.5. Aims of the River Literacy Concept—Educational Objective

In alignment with the United Nations’ (UN) Sustainable Development Goals, the European Union’s (EU) mission, “Restore Our Ocean and Waters”, aims to enhance the ecological status of aquatic ecosystems and restore the social and cultural relationships between communities and their surrounding waters [39]. This initiative promotes the Blue Economy, with a strong focus on developing water-related professions, including sustainable fisheries, aquaculture, eco-tourism, navigation, water management, and hydropower. These “blue jobs” are vital for the sustainable management of aquatic ecosystems, as well as for regional development and climate resilience [40,41]. To ensure that there are enough human resources in the blue economy, the EU’s “Ocean and Waters” mission seeks to reconnect riverside and coastal populations with their local water bodies. This approach highlights the importance of socio-cultural ecosystem services and promotes water stewardship, particularly among younger generations [42]. It’s essential to recognize that communities living near rivers and coasts have different educational needs compared to those living farther away. Individuals in riverside areas could benefit from field- and experience-based education, while broader awareness and stewardship initiatives could be directed toward populations located further from water bodies.

To support EU and UN sustainability goals and educate riverside communities about their rivers, plastic pollution, and recycling, the Plastic Cup Initiative has launched an experimental travelling exhibition called the “River Litter Lab.” Educational tours conducted with the River Litter Lab across Danubian countries have shown that ocean literacy principles cannot be directly applied to the environmental education of riverside communities; instead, they must be adapted. While ocean literacy principles are essential for understanding the critical role of marine environments in the biosphere, riverside communities have a much stronger cultural and personal connection to their rivers than to the sea. Their shared experiences include myths, legends, and stories about the river, as well as traditional and everyday routines linked to it. To effectively involve riverside communities in an awareness-raising campaign or educational program, we must address issues related to both oceans and rivers.

Connections between ancient river valley civilizations and the foundations of modern society highlight the importance of adapting ocean literacy concepts to rivers. The ecological and economic services that rivers provide emphasize the need for a river literacy framework. Recent studies indicate that around 40% of the world’s human population lives within 100 km of marine shorelines [43], while 50% of the global population lives closer than 3 km to freshwater sources [44]. Furthermore, the total length of rivers (7–8 million km; [45]) and riverbanks (14–16 million km) exceeds that of marine coastlines (356 thousand km; [46]), where communities interact with these water bodies. Considering that most interactions between local communities and water bodies occur along riverbanks, we conclude that, despite the limited volume of rivers, they hold a significant place in the mindset, culture, and everyday life of riverine communities.

Our goal is to adapt the ocean literacy principles to the riverine environment. We aimed to create a clear conceptual connection to the ocean literacy framework by accurate alignment with its foundational principles. We prioritised maximum fidelity to the structure and content of the original ocean literacy statements, aiming to retain their integrity while contextualising them for riverine settings. Additionally, we sought to test the developed river literacy concept by analysing the preliminary results on river literacy education.

The current version is published in the Riversavers’ Handbook [47,48], a three-part educational textbook series freely available in five languages. This concept contributes to the implementation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the EU’s Mission to “Restore Our Ocean and Waters,” while also supporting the expansion of the EU Blue Schools Network. In the long term, river literacy aims to foster the development of the Blue Economy, promote sustainable and circular economic practices, and encourage responsible, ecosystem-based water management.

2. Materials and Methods

The concept of river literacy was developed using brainstorming techniques. Various brainstorming techniques, such as Opera and World Café, were utilised, and the multilingual backgrounds of the experts were considered during in-person meetings. The concept arose when it became clear that ocean literacy could not be effectively applied to riverine communities. To address this issue, experts collaborated on several international projects (“5 Countries 1 River” and “River Lit(t)eracy—Riversaver Schools”). The primary goal was to develop a river literacy framework that incorporated the seven principles of ocean literacy. In this adaptation process, three key considerations were taken into account: (1) establishing a connection between river literacy and ocean literacy to extend rather than challenge the existing framework; (2) maintaining maximum fidelity to the original ocean literacy principles, which have been developed over several decades; and (3) taking into account the unique natural characteristics of rivers. Initially, the principles of river literacy were outlined, and their content was refined through extensive discussions. After several years of conceptual development, the final formulation was completed, and an educational program was created, considering inputs from teachers.

The first principle serves as a conceptual bridge, connecting rivers to the ocean and situating river literacy within the broader context of ocean literacy. The river literacy principles were designed to align closely with those of ocean literacy, with some being directly derived from specific ocean literacy principles or their combinations.

The river literacy principles were tested through educational programs in primary and secondary schools across five countries: Ukraine, Romania, Hungary, Slovakia, and Serbia, all located within the Danube River Basin. A total of 175 teachers and 1550 students participated in these educational programs. In addition, River Saver Workshops were organised for young adults. The effectiveness of the river literacy program was evaluated using a smaller group of participants (45) of a Riversaver Workshop. To assess river literacy before and after the educational program, participants completed questionnaires consisting of 47 questions categorised into three main topics: (1) motivation, (2) knowledge and knowledge transfer, and (3) the actual state of the environment.

3. Results and Discussion: River Literacy Concept

The purpose of the river literacy framework is to educate individuals about the importance of rivers in their lives and the effects of human activity on these vital resources. The primary goal of each principle is to encourage people to develop an interest in rivers, spend more time outdoors—particularly near waterways, connect with their local rivers, and enhance their understanding of water-related issues. The river literacy framework consists of seven guiding principles:

• Everything that happens to the river affects the ocean.
• The lives of rivers and people are closely connected.
• Every river is vulnerable and deserves protection.
• The river gives life, but it can also take it away.
• The river is a shared heritage, not a commodity.
• The river and life in the river shape the landscape, the weather and climate.
• The river and its creatures are largely unexplored.

An open-access, multilingual educational material entitled Riversavers’ Handbook [47,48] has been published based on the seven river literacy principles. Video-based teaching aids and PowerPoint presentations support the handbook. The educational program incorporates playful, experiential learning methods, blending group activities with individual reflective work. The handbook has also established the foundation for the emerging international Riversaver School Network, which currently includes 40 primary and secondary schools across the Tisza River Basin. Approximately 20 teachers and 400 students have tested the handbook through nearly 100 h of pilot sessions. Furthermore, more than 50 university students and young professionals from nine Danubian countries—Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Hungary, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Ukraine—have been trained as river cleanup coordinators using the river literacy framework. Among the most popular elements of the educational program are citizen science activities and the river adoption protocol. This initiative allows students and teachers to “adopt” specific river sections and maintain them in collaboration with local communities. To further enhance the educational impact of the river literacy principles, the conceptual Riversavers Handbook continues to evolve.

To enhance the educational impact of the river literacy principles, we adapted the conceptual model of ocean literacy dimensions, as defined by McKinley et al. [10], for a river context (Figure 2). These dimensions encompass key knowledge areas, cognitive and emotional skills, and behavioural attributes. An additional eleventh dimension, “blue therapy”, was introduced to the river literacy model. Recent studies have shown that, for example, cold water swimming and exposure to “blue spaces” can enhance well-being and mood, and reduce anxiety [49,50]. In our approach, blue therapy has a broader context, as it refers to a wide variety of recreational activities (e.g., meditation, yoga, and rowing) carried out at a river. This new dimension highlights the potential mental health benefits of human–river interactions. It aims to alleviate the anxiety associated with water-related environmental stressors, including pollution, droughts, and climate change.

3.1. River Literacy Principle 1: Everything That Happens to the River Affects the Ocean

The primary objective of Principle 1 is to establish a conceptual connection with the ocean and the adapted ocean literacy framework by establishing downstream awareness (

Table 2. Main characteristics of the river literacy Principle 1, entitled “Everything that happens to the river affects the ocean”.

Characteristics	Content
Adapted/related ocean literacy principle(s)	The Earth has one big ocean with many features.
Key messages	Small changes in rivers can change the ocean. Rivers are exciting and interesting. Pollution of rivers by certain pollutants (e.g., plastic) is increasing. The power of cooperation and communities. Blue therapy can reduce and cure anxiety. Blue jobs provide excellent career opportunities.
Fundamental concept(s) transmitted, core body of knowledge	The significance of oceans. Longitudinal connectivity of rivers. Catchment area and downstream awareness. Throwaway culture and circular economy. Basic pollution awareness. Climate change and anxiety. The power of communities and cooperation. The potential of water in recreation. River cleanup and restoration initiatives.
Educational intention	to raise interest in people towards their local waterway; to emphasise the significance of rivers; to show our direct connection to the ocean; to show compassion and empathy to downstream regions; to highlight an international network of Riversaver communities (including individuals, schools, NGOs, municipalities); to demonstrate solutions on both individual and community levels.
Main dimensions of the human–river relationship	This principle raises interest and curiosity towards rivers, transfers fundamental knowledge on the longitudinal connectivity of rivers and ocean, and increases awareness of the presence of the local river. It aims to connect people emotionally to their river and catchment, and to instil trust in the information provided by scientists. The principle raises problems but also offers solutions, and can help decrease climate anxiety through its connection to blue therapy.
Examples of individual and team activities	Riversavers’ Handbook [47] (pp. 8–14), [48] (pp. 10–13)

). This principle aims to foster a direct cognitive and emotional connection between individuals and riverside communities, as well as the distant marine environments. It elevates the perceived significance of local water bodies by emphasising that actions affecting a river affect downstream river reaches and ultimately the ocean and its ecosystems. Rivers, which may have previously held little personal meaning for people, become sources of interest and concern. We believe river literacy does not begin with teaching global hydrological cycles or scientific models. Instead, we initiate the learning process by cultivating curiosity about the downstream realities—people, cities, nations, and ultimately the ocean. This approach fosters awareness, empathy, and cooperative attitudes that are essential for cooperation between countries within the same catchment area.

Rather than presenting the global water cycle in its entirety, the principle focuses on a specific, localised segment, enabling deeper engagement and fostering the emergence of personal interest and commitment. These are key prerequisites for long-term environmental stewardship. In this principle, the term ‘river’ refers to all water bodies that flow in a channel and shape the landscape. Environmental issues are addressed progressively; thus, pollution awareness is also introduced early within this principle, but gradually, in parallel with the development of the individuals’ scientific understanding. Pollution is introduced through a familiar and tangible category: plastics. By exploring plastic production, its transportation from land to sea, and the impact on aquatic ecosystems, people begin to understand the broader implications of human activities on water quality. The principle also presents practical solutions, highlighting transnational initiatives and organisations that work to mitigate plastic pollution.

3.2. River Literacy Principle 2: The Lives of Rivers and People Are Closely Connected

Although ocean literacy addresses the relationship between water and humans in its Principle 6, it was listed as Principle 2 in the river literacy concept. The main reason is that the ocean captures people’s imagination more easily, whereas local rivers, which run through familiar and less exotic landscapes, often appear less engaging. For the success of the educational program, it was essential to emphasise this principle. During discussions of this principle, students commonly responded to the question “What do rivers provide?” with a simple answer: “water.” However, by exploring the wide range of ecological and economic services that rivers offer, individuals come to realise that rivers are much more than just a source of water.

Principle 2 emphasises the gifts of rivers, particularly focusing on upstream awareness (

Table 3. Main characteristics of the river literacy Principle 2, entitled “The lives of rivers and people are closely connected”.

Characteristics	Content
Adapted/related ocean literacy principle(s)	The ocean and humans are inextricably interconnected
Key messages	Rivers sustain life, settlements and civilisations. Rivers provide ecological and economical services. Rivers inspire people. Rivers are sources of recreation, excitement and joy. Rivers can reduce and cure anxiety.
Fundamental concept(s) transmitted, core body of knowledge	Ecological and economic services. Sustainable development goals. Catchment area and upstream awareness. Small water cycles. Blue economy and blue jobs. River-related resources. Personal recovery, recreation.
Educational intention	to raise interest in people towards their local waterway; to emphasise the significance of rivers; to show our direct connection to upstream regions; to start to apprehend the central role of water in our lives; to highlight how many ways rivers provide for us.
Main dimensions of the human–river relationship	This principle holds particular importance in shaping human–river relationships. Its primary educational role is to evoke and later raise awareness of the various ways in which rivers enable, support, and enhance the quality of our daily lives.
Examples of individual and team activities	Riversavers’ Handbook [47] (pp. 45–65), [48] (pp. 20–23)

). People gradually learn that upstream activities and processes have a significant influence on the condition and characteristics of a river reach. Familiarity with upstream landscapes and communities is essential for later parts of the educational program. Combined with the downstream awareness taught in Principle 1, this principle enhances the overall understanding of longitudinal connectivity, which is fundamental to developing catchment-scale water literacy.

This principle provides an opportunity to explore human–river relationships, not only in the present but also across centuries or even millennia. People are often surprised when they see historical maps or photographs of a familiar river section, realising that the river and its floodplain had a different character in the past. Aerial photographs, old maps illustrating large-scale river regulation projects, and AI-generated landscape reconstructions can evoke both astonishment and a deeper appreciation for the cultural and historical significance of rivers.

3.3. River Literacy Principle 3: Every River Is Vulnerable and Deserves Protection

The ocean literacy concept does not dedicate a specific principle to environmental protection; however, it is a commitment to environmental stewardship. In contrast, river literacy dedicated a principle to environmental protection (

Table 4. Main characteristics of the river literacy Principle 3, entitled “Every river is vulnerable and deserves protection”.

Characteristics	Content
Adapted/related ocean literacy principle(s)	In the lack of a closely related ocean literacy principle, the EU Oceans and Water Mission and the UN Sustainable Development Goals were adapted to create this principle.
Key messages	Rivers store much less water than the ocean. Riverbanks are 42 times longer than marine coastlines. Rivers, banklines, and floodplains are more heavily populated than marine coastlines. Rivers are more exposed to pollution than the ocean. Pollution in rivers can take many forms. Rivers function as conveyors and filters for water, sediment, and pollution. Rivers and floodplains exist together. Rivers and their floodplains need protection.
Fundamental concept(s) transmitted, core body of knowledge	Channel, floodplain, and riparian zones, as well as riparian resilience. Pollution forms (e.g., intentional, accidental, dissolved, solid, visible, invisible). Mitigation and prevention. River protection and restoration.
Educational intention	to show various ways people affect rivers; to describe different forms of pollution; to understand why rivers are more exposed to pollution than the ocean; to understand how rivers convey pollution into the ocean; to show how rivers act as filters and, as a result, pollution accumulations are formed; to explain the vital role of floodplains; to show good examples and best practices for the protection and restoration of riverine habitats.
Main dimensions of the human–river relationship	The connection with rivers is twofold—society receives a great deal from rivers, and in return, we also give many things. Principle 3 raises awareness of pollution and fosters readiness to make a change to the next level.
Examples of individual and team activities	Riversavers’ Handbook [47] (pp. 27–31), [48] (pp. 30–33)

). This principle was placed in the third position because rivers, floodplains, and riverine ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to various forms of contamination. Rivers are susceptible to pollution due to their relatively small water volume (only 0.0002% of all water on Earth; [51]), extensive banklines, dense human populations along their banks, and the numerous interactions that occur throughout their catchments.

When asked the question, “What do we give to rivers?”, people often struggle to respond because they may not realise how various everyday human activities impact river systems and their biodiversity. Through discussions about Principle 3, individuals come to understand that the term “river” includes not only the flowing water but also the riverbed, the banks, the regularly inundated floodplains and the living organisms. Principle 3 plays a key role in raising individuals’ awareness of pollution. They learn that water pollution is not always intentional; it can arise from ignorance or lack of knowledge. For instance, unintentional pollution can result from noise and wave pollution caused by motorboats, or from construction activities in floodplains. In contrast, intentional pollution occurs when activities driven by economic gain result in ecological and social consequences. This knowledge helps people to become more conscious consumers and responsible decision-makers.

In addition to identifying environmental problems, Principle 3 offers an opportunity to explore solutions, best practices, and effective methods for protecting and restoring rivers. People are introduced to individual initiatives as well as international movements, and they learn from exemplary practices. These include “river adoption” programs, the establishment of catchment-scale stakeholder management committees, and the legal recognition of rivers as entities with rights.

3.4. River Literacy Principle 4: The River Gives Life, but It Can Also Take It Away

The legacy of ancient river valley civilisations profoundly influences modern urban lifestyles. Much like life in ancient Mesopotamia or Egypt, human activities in various parts of the world remain closely tied to the patterns of rainfall and flooding. The floods spread nutrient-rich sediments across floodplains, supporting agriculture and animal husbandry. However, floods have not only benefits, but also significant risks. Flash floods, strong currents, deep waters, and sudden water level changes can lead to accidents or tragedies, especially for those who lack a solid understanding of river dynamics. The discussion of Principle 4 emphasises the importance of promoting safe behaviour along rivers by developing observation skills and respect for flowing water.

Principle 4 offers an opportunity to learn about how large-scale landscape transformations, river regulation, and landscape reconstruction have disrupted sustainable water cycles and intensified the effects of global climate change (

Table 5. Main characteristics of the river literacy Principle 4, entitled “The river gives life, but it can also take it away”.

Characteristics	Content
Adapted/related ocean literacy principle(s)	The ocean made Earth habitable. The ocean supports a great diversity of life and ecosystems.
Key messages	Rivers are in a mutual relation with riverside habitats and communities. Water quality in rivers changes temporally and spatially. Rivers are exposed to the effects of climate change. The flow, water level and other characteristics of rivers fluctuate. Rivers need space for channel migration and overbank floods. Riverbanks should be approached with extra care. Currents, waterfalls, flow and depth pose a life hazard. Floods can form quickly and appear unexpectedly. Floods can turn into forces of destruction.
Fundamental concept(s) transmitted, core body of knowledge	River valley civilisations and irrigation. Floods, sediment and nutrients. Hydrological changes in time: high waters and low waters. Current, flow velocity, whirlpools and vortex effect. Urban heat island and hot plate effect. Atmospheric river, surface and subsurface runoff. Floods and flash floods, and their prediction. Safety precautions: early warning systems, forecast, emergency protocols.
Educational intention	to show how rivers sustain life; to connect modern lifestyle to ancient river valley civilisations; to describe the nurturing potential of natural floods; to introduce the main characteristics of a river (depth, flow rate, discharge, current); to teach the rules of thumb when being close to a river; to describe the destruction potential of flash floods; to acquire basic survival skills in case of an emergency flood event; to learn to approach a river with respect and caution.
Main dimensions of the human–river relationship	Besides providing nutrients and life, the flow can quickly turn into a force of destruction. Swimming at the wrong place at the wrong time, being in a building constructed in the wrong place, or driving a car on a flooded road can easily turn into a death trap. With the more extreme effects of climate change, river literacy can provide the critical knowledge necessary for surviving extreme weather events.
Examples of individual and team activities	Riversavers’ Handbook [47] (pp. 16–20), [48] (pp. 42–45)

). In this altered environment, the urban heat island effect has intensified, resulting in increasingly erratic weather patterns, including extreme droughts, prolonged heatwaves, and sudden, intense rainfall events. As a result, floods have transitioned from being beneficial to becoming a destructive force. Water now arrives with unprecedented speed and power, causing greater damage due to the dense built environment.

Individuals can learn the essential actions to take during emergencies, as everyone must be aware of basic safety protocols during floods. This includes avoiding riverbanks, not crossing flooded rivers, and paying attention to official warnings. Understanding the dangers of driving in flooded areas, as well as recognising that children and women are often more vulnerable to being swept away than men, can be life-saving. Such knowledge is vital not only for individual safety but also carries significant value for communities.

The occurrence and mitigation of droughts and heatwaves are closely linked to the condition of rivers and their floodplains. Water management strategies are increasingly focused on addressing the adverse effects of past mismanagement. As a result, river restoration initiatives are gaining momentum worldwide. They aim to restore rivers and floodplains close to their natural state. Restoring hydro-morphological features is crucial for local water cycles and can help mitigate the impacts of heat and drought.

3.5. River Literacy Principle 5: The River Is a Shared Heritage, Not a Commodity

Around the world, just half of the wastewater is adequately treated [52] and the recycling rate for plastics is just 9% [53]. Unsustainable water management practices often coincide with irresponsible waste management. In contrast, sustainable water management views river basins as complex living systems, recognising their connections to visible water bodies (e.g., glaciers and lakes) and invisible water resources (e.g., groundwater). Understanding rivers as part of the broader hydrological cycle is essential for effective catchment-scale thinking.

Principle 5 helps people understand that river catchments are more permanent than national borders (

Table 6. Main characteristics of the river literacy Principle 5, entitled “The river is a shared heritage, not a commodity”.

Characteristics	Content
Adapted/related ocean literacy principle(s)	In the lack of a closely related ocean literacy principle, the EU Oceans and Water mission and UN Sustainable Development Goals were adapted to create this principle.
Key messages	Rivers are not a commodity. Rivers know no boundaries. Rivers are connected to hidden water reserves. Groundwater reserves could be old, requiring a considerable amount of time to replenish. Rivers are an integral part of both the natural and cultural heritage. Rivers and people have co-existed since prehistoric times. The culture and traditions of natural co-existence should be preserved. If neglected, the culture and traditions associated with rivers diminish rapidly. Rivers inspire cultural traditions. Rivers can serve as time capsules, which can be recovered and help to reconstruct the past.
Fundamental concept(s) transmitted, core body of knowledge	River continuity. Sustainable river basin management. Water companies, tap water, bottled water. Single-use plastics, wet wipes, and wastewater management. Traditional skills, trades, and livelihoods related to rivers. Traditional routines and rituals related to rivers. Creation myths, history of origin. Time capsules, hunger stones, historical artefacts. Groundwater reservoirs.
Educational intention	to explain that rivers are connected to water reserves often undetectable to the human eye (atmospheric and subsurface waters); to highlight that countries of the same catchment area have many things in common; to highlight the importance of historical common wisdom on rivers; to use old myths, legends, habits and rituals to recall our ancestors’ relation to the river; to explore artefacts, relics, fossils from the past, preserved by the river and its sediments; to reconstruct how preceding generations have sustainably lived along the river; to look at watermills, water sawmills, wooden boats, and old fishing tools with a fresh eye.
Main dimensions of the human–river relationship	Within the frame of knowledge transfer and awareness, the citizens can collect information and understand the consequences of engineering adjustments on rivers. This information could influence their behaviour (actions) and adaptive capacity. By increasing trust and transparency, the short-term advantages could be replaced by long-term benefits, and the blue therapy could help restore rivers. The shared cultural heritage related to the given river helps create a sense of belonging to the catchment area, serving as the foundation for sustainable water management in rivers.
Examples of individual and team activities	Riversavers’ Handbook [47] (pp. 65–72), [48] (pp. 54–57)

). Countries sharing the same catchment often share various aspects, such as climate, culture, and cuisine, which are frequently reflected in common myths, traditions, and cross-border practices. The realisation that rivers do not recognise boundaries can be enlightening. Principle 5 can foster a sense of belonging, creating a comforting feeling of “being at home” by a river. This can lead individuals to identify themselves, for example, as “citizens of the Danube”.

Historically, rivers were vital for drinking water, food, and transportation, but this connection has diminished over time. Over the centuries, folk wisdom and scientific knowledge about rivers have accumulated. However, much of this heritage is gradually being lost due to a lack of preservation and cultural continuity. Principle 5 also aims to restore these connections by promoting good historical practices (e.g., traditional boatbuilding, navigation, and old fishing methods) and contemporary river restoration and sustainable water resource management efforts. Local communities often protect traditional river-related relics, sites, and artefacts (e.g., mills, wooden boats), whose cultural and historical significance outweighs their economic value. One of the aims of Principle 5 is to uncover the “deep hidden stories” of rivers. This principle encourages the discovery of “time capsules” that preserve natural and cultural river-related heritage. These may include origin myths, historic drought markers (e.g., hunger stones), submerged archaeological relics (e.g., shipwrecks), and fossil records. This principle emphasises that water should not be viewed merely as an economic resource but rather as a shared heritage that requires collaborative, catchment-based governance. Additionally, it serves as a medium for recreation, renewal, and community building.

3.6. River Literacy Principle 6: The River, and Life in the River, Shape the Landscape, the Weather and the Climate

Principle 6 places rivers within an evolutionary context, highlighting their natural dynamic history (

Table 7. Main characteristics of the river literacy Principle 6, entitled “The river, and life in the river shape the landscape, the weather and the climate”.

Characteristics	Content
Adapted/related ocean literacy principle(s)	The ocean and life in the ocean shape the features of Earth. The ocean is a major influence on weather and climate.
Key messages	Rivers are dynamic systems that transform their environment, turning rocks into gravel, sand, silt, and clay. Rivers are ancient entities that have existed for thousands or millions of years. Rivers drain water, and they also allow water to infiltrate the ground, evaporate into the air, and cool the climate. Rivers play a crucial role in both the global and local water cycles. Water cycles can be damaged and repaired. River regulations alter natural channel forms and processes, temporarily halting the landscape-altering potential of rivers. Regulation changes the rivers’ infiltration, evaporation and cooling effect. Sustainable water management relies on the renewable powers of the river.
Fundamental concept(s) transmitted, core body of knowledge	Geological timescales of river systems. Geomorphological forces of rivers and dynamically evolving fluvial systems. The difference between natural and regulated rivers. Influence of rivers on climate. Infiltration, evaporation, run-off and water balance. Riparian vegetation and hydrological balance. Sustainable floodplain management.
Educational intention	to connect local and global water cycles; to appreciate a river’s role in local water cycles; to explain the natural behaviour of a free-flowing river; to describe the history of a river on a geological timescale; to describe and illustrate the invisible forces of a river; to demonstrate the various ways rivers can contribute to achieving climate resilience.
Main dimensions of the human–river relationship	Principle 6 helps redefine the connection an individual has with the river. Understanding the ancient history and immense power of rivers, concepts such as water balance, water catchment, climate change, and resilience take on new meaning. After learning about the invisible connections to hidden water reserves of the hydrosphere in Principle 5, Principle 6 opens another dimension: time. By perceiving time not only in historical terms, but also on an evolutionary scale, more profound knowledge can be gathered about the invisible power of rivers.

). People are often astonished when they compare satellite images of natural rivers taken over decades, where the continuous formation of meanders and islands illustrates the ever-shifting nature of river channels. This comparison emphasises the contrast between recent regulated and channelised rivers and their ancient, freely migrating counterparts that shaped landscapes over millennia. While previous principles of river literacy addressed the historical and human-induced alterations of riverbeds and floodplains, Principle 6 aims to span geological timescales. People are often surprised to learn that large rivers drastically changed their courses over geological timescales, significantly influencing the modern landscape. Considering such vast temporal scales highlights the immense geomorphological power of rivers: forming pebbles, incising valleys, redistributing sediments, creating new channels, and influencing local climate, flora and fauna. Through hands-on activities, such as studying rounded pebbles and comparing river sand with coastal sand under a microscope, people gain insights into the erosive and depositional power of rivers. Thus, Principle 6 introduces the invisible forces of rivers, exploring their role in geomorphological processes and in local climate regulation.

Many people see rivers primarily as systems for draining rainwater. However, as they learn more about them (e.g., source of water, water cycle), they begin to recognise that rivers play an active role in influencing the microclimate. Rivers and their catchment area can induce local precipitation, create fog, regulate humidity, and cool the surrounding environment through evaporation. While precipitation is widely acknowledged as the basis of small (short or local) water cycles, the critical role of vegetation in managing rainfall through infiltration, evapotranspiration, shading, and surface runoff is often overlooked. Riparian forests and floodplains play a crucial role in mitigating climate change, as they buffer temperature extremes, retain moisture, and support ecosystem resilience.

A thorough understanding of a river and its catchment area reveals how water and sediment are transported from higher elevations to lowlands, influencing the landscape, soil composition, and vegetation. Studying floodplains further emphasises their ecological and hydrological significance. Even slight differences in elevation can significantly impact flooding patterns, soil properties, and habitat diversity. The dynamic evolution of channels and floodplains creates habitats for unique and specialised plants and animals. Riparian vegetation (e.g., trees, reeds) helps cool the environment through evapotranspiration, provides shade, decreases flow velocity, enhances sediment deposition and moisture retention. These natural functions contrast sharply with urban environments, where artificial surfaces (e.g., concrete, asphalt) absorb solar radiation and re-emit it as heat, intensifying summer heatwaves. Understanding these natural processes encourages a mindset of cooperating with nature rather than working against it, which is essential for sustainable floodplain management.

3.7. River Literacy Principle 7: The River and Its Creatures Are Largely Unexplored

Principle 7 highlights that a limited understanding often influences the public perception of rivers (

Table 8. Main characteristics of the river literacy Principle 7, entitled “The river and its creatures are largely unexplored”.

Characteristics	Content
Adapted/related ocean literacy principle(s)	The ocean is largely unexplored.
Key messages	The overexploitation of catchments has been contributing to the decline of past civilisations. Monitoring water quality and quantity, as well as riverine ecosystems, using scientific methodologies, is essential. Researchers require resources and continuous support to monitor water quality. Citizen scientists, indicator species and invasive species can also help to monitor water quality in rivers. Communication of scientific results is essential.
Fundamental concept(s) transmitted, core body of knowledge	Public perception of rivers. Loss of common wisdom and traditional knowledge about rivers. Knowledge gaps and misconceptions about rivers. Revival of traditional knowledge and practices. Integration of heritage and sustainability. Best traditional practices and their links to modern river restoration and sustainable water management. Role of community engagement. Citizen science and community knowledge. Academic river research and scientific disciplines (hydrology, geomorphology, and ecology). Technological innovations in river research. Modern technologies: remote sensing, high-resolution digital elevation models, machine learning, and artificial intelligence. Indicators, native and invasive species are part of the riparian ecosystem. Ongoing river restoration and management.
Educational intention	to underline the importance of the heritage of rivers; to bring good examples for sustainable co-existence with rivers; to draw attention to collapsed civilisations due to loss of access to water and/or disconnected water cycles; to explain the importance of community involvement in preserving traditions; to explain the importance of community involvement in data collection efforts utilising citizen science; to show possible career paths related to research and other blue economy sectors.
Main dimensions of the human–river relationship	Principle 7 emphasises the importance of knowledge, scientific facts, and explanations. It highlights the role of scientific methodologies, especially in an era where people face challenges such as shortened attention spans and the prevalence of misconceptions and fake news. Engaging in research—whether it is historical, citizen science, or academic—enables individuals and communities to establish a new relationship with rivers.

); thus, many people believe that rivers are static entities that follow the same course. This misconception stems from the slow and usually unnoticed fluvial processes, as well as the increasing disconnection of modern societies from rivers. Over the centuries, folk wisdom and scientific knowledge about rivers have accumulated. However, much of this heritage is gradually being lost due to a lack of preservation and cultural continuity.

Citizen science presents new opportunities for river research, primarily through cross-border collaborations that complement academic knowledge and expertise. Contrary to the common belief among people that “there is nothing left to discover about rivers,” the exploration of a river doesn’t stop with identifying its source and mouth. It continues through ongoing monitoring, understanding the consequences of human interventions, restoration efforts, and ecological management.

The study of rivers (limnology) encompasses various scientific disciplines, including hydrology, geomorphology, and ecology. Researching rivers poses unique challenges because they are frequently turbid, fast-flowing, and deep. Additionally, significant hydrological events, such as floods or droughts, can occur unpredictably, making precise observations and data collection both technically and physically demanding.

Emerging technologies, such as remote sensing, machine learning, artificial intelligence, and new data sources (e.g., satellite images, high-resolution digital elevation models), enable much more detailed analyses than ever before. These advancements significantly enhance our understanding of fluvial systems. Despite this progress, our collective knowledge (whether individual, communal, or scientific) remains incomplete, particularly given the crucial role that rivers and their ecosystems play in maintaining hydrological balance.

Many species rely on the quality and continuity of riverine habitats. Sensitive migratory species serve as indicators of the overall health of the aquatic systems; thus, they can be used to assess ecological conditions. In contrast, invasive species threaten local biodiversity by outcompeting or displacing native species. Changes in species dynamics are closely linked to alterations in flow regimes, which are increasingly affected by climate change and human pressures. Consequently, the study of river ecosystems, including efforts to restore natural hydrological and ecological states, remains an ongoing and vital area of research.

3.8. Evaluation of the Success of the Educational Program on River Literacy

Based on the questionnaires, the river literacy of all participants improved. However, only 20 out of the 47 questions indicated a significant enhancement. This outcome may be attributed to the fact that the program was introduced to individuals who were already interested in river-related topics and had participated in river conservation workshops.

Firstly, the participants became motivated to learn more about rivers and how to reduce their pollution. At the beginning of the river literacy education program, only 70% of the participants believed that education could help decrease pollution and disruption of rivers. By the end of the program, this percentage had increased to 84%. The emotional commitment of the participants grew, and they experienced a sense of “blue therapy”.

The knowledge of the participants also broadened (Figure 3), as they gained new insights into fluvial processes, recycling, and river pollution. Their understanding and skills related to river clean-up and restoration methods improved dramatically. Additionally, their awareness of riverine ecology increased considerably.

Furthermore, participants expanded their knowledge about the environmental state of river pollution. The number of individuals who learned about recent pollution issues, such as salt pollution in the Maros River, and past pollution events, like cyanide contamination in the Tisza River, doubled.

However, it is essential to note that the river literacy program has just been launched. It should be introduced to a broader audience representing various age groups, social backgrounds, and educational levels. Since this is only the beginning of the program, our questionnaire results may not be fully representative. To accurately assess the program’s success and acceptance, more detailed survey data are needed.

4. Conclusions

The current concept of water literacy is too broad and abstract for riverside communities. To enhance their cognitive understanding and emotional connection to river ecosystems, we developed a tailored set of river literacy principles based on the seven principles of ocean literacy. This adaptation was carried out in collaboration with researchers, teachers, environmental educators, and experts in water and waste management from across the Danube Basin.

The proposed educational framework consists of seven principles and is currently being implemented in primary schools across four countries in the Danube Basin. The accompanying teaching materials focus on experiential learning, engaging group activities, and reflective individual tasks. This framework is flexible and can be integrated into higher education curricula, as well as adapted for other river catchments outside the Danube Basin. Based on insights gained from the establishment of the Riversaver School Network, we believe that educational programs focusing on ocean and river literacy can significantly support initiatives like the expansion of the EU Blue Schools network. We recommend ongoing testing of the river literacy principles, the inclusion of additional experts, and further refinement of the framework to enhance its pedagogical effectiveness.

The presented river literacy concept complements the existing ocean literacy framework and could be an effective tool for environmental education among riverside communities. We also recommend expanding the literacy approach to other water bodies, such as lakes, subsurface waters, and atmospheric waters. Once these complementary literacy models are developed and tested, they could be integrated into a unified, comprehensive framework for water awareness. We believe that by reinforcing these initiatives, water-related education could be more effective and contribute to sustainable water management efforts worldwide.