Indoor CO2 and Thermal Conditions in Twenty Scottish Primary School Classrooms with Different Ventilation Systems during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Link between Outdoor and Indoor Climate (Temperature and RH)
3.2. Indoor Climate (Temperature and RH)
3.2.1. Indoor Temperature
3.2.2. Indoor RH
3.3. CO2 Concentration and Ventilation Rates
3.3.1. Carbon Dioxide Concentration
Maximum CO2 Levels and % of Time above Threshold
- –
- All the rooms at school B were between 1863 and 2810 ppm;
- –
- Almost all the classrooms at school C (except room C2) were from 1560 to 1862 ppm;
- –
- At school D, classrooms D2 (2001 ppm), D3 (1620 ppm) and D4 (1999 ppm) exceeded threshold values.
- –
- School B: rooms B1 (2% above 1500 ppm), B2 (18% of the time above 1500 ppm), B4 (2% of the time above 1500 ppm) and B5 (69% of the time above 1500 ppm);
- –
- School C in rooms C1 (1%), C4 (9% of the time above 1500 ppm) and C5 (4%);
- –
- School D in room D2 (22% of the time above 1500 ppm).
Analysis of the CO2 Concentration for B5
Analysis of the CO2 Concentration for B2 and D2
3.3.2. Ventilation Rates
4. Discussion
5. Limitations and Further Work
5.1. Limitations
5.2. Further Development
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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School | Classroom | Storey | Ventilation System | Orientation | Space Volume (m3) | Space Area (m2) | Year Built/Last Renovation | Occupancy (Teachers and Pupils) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Max | ||||||||
A | A1 | Ground | Natural | SSE-E | 71.8 | 28.0 | 1964 | 23 | 27 |
A2 | Ground | Natural | SSE | 94.3 | 36.3 | 1964 | 11 | 26 | |
A3 | Ground | Natural | SSE | 116.8 | 38.9 | 1964 | 24 | 28 | |
A4 | 1st | Natural | E-NNE | 145.1 | 48.4 | 1964 | 23 | 24 | |
A5 | 2nd (Top) | Natural | SSE-W | 145.1 | 48.4 | 1964 | 19 | 22 | |
B | B1 | Ground | Mechanical | E-W | 142.8 | 47.6 | 1968 | 30 | 33 |
B2 | 2nd (Top) | Natural | NE-SW | 148.1 | 51.9 | 1968 | 27 | 29 | |
B3 | 1st | Natural | NE-SW | 61.2 | 23.5 | 1968 | 22 | 29 | |
B4 | Ground | Mechanical | NW | 126.8 | 42.3 | 2013 | 23 | 27 | |
B5 | Ground | Mechanical | N-S-E-W | 432.0 | 154.3 | 2017 | 47 | 51 | |
C | C1 | Ground | Natural | W | 196.0 | 38.2 | 1891 | 22 | 30 |
C2 | 2nd(Top) | Natural | SW-W | 184.3 | 40.0 | 1891 | 33 | 34 | |
C3 | 2nd (Top) | Natural | W | 173.4 | 38.2 | 1891 | 22 | 31 | |
C4 | 2nd (Top) | Natural | NE | 250.7 | 54.5 | 1891 | 22 | 30 | |
C5 | 2nd (Top) | Natural | NE-W | 250.6 | 54.5 | 1891 | 32 | 33 | |
D | D1 | Ground | Mechanical | W | 168.0 | 42 | 2015 | 24 | 35 |
D2 | Ground | Natural | SW | 210.0 | 42 | 1902 | 30 | 34 | |
D3 | 1st | Natural | NE | 192.0 | 48 | 1902 | 29 | 34 | |
D4 | 2nd (Top) | Natural | SW | 165.0 | 33 | 1902 | 24 | 30 | |
D5 | Ground | Mechanical | S | 162.0 | 40.5 | 2007 | 23 | 31 |
Classroom | Storey | Orientation | Windows Area (m2) | Occupancy (Teachers and Pupils) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Min | Max | ||||
A1 | Ground | SSE-E | 22.99 | 23 | 27 |
A2 | Ground | SSE | 41.47 | 11 | 26 |
A3 | Ground | SSE | 10.44 | 24 | 28 |
A4 | 1st | E-NNE | 17.48 | 23 | 24 |
A5 | 2nd (Top) | SSE-W | 33.70 | 19 | 22 |
B1 | Ground | E-W | 4.34 | 30 | 33 |
B2 | 2nd (Top) | NE-SW | 9.63 | 27 | 29 |
B3 | 1st | NE-SW | 2.10 | 22 | 29 |
B4 | Ground | NW | 12.87 | 23 | 27 |
B5 | Ground | N-S-E-W | 7.68 | 47 | 51 |
C1 | Ground | W | 5.21 | 22 | 30 |
C2 | 2nd(Top) | SW-W | 8.83 | 33 | 34 |
C3 | 2nd (Top) | W | 10.47 | 22 | 31 |
C4 | 2nd (Top) | NE | 8.83 | 22 | 30 |
C5 | 2nd (Top) | NE-W | 2.30 | 32 | 33 |
D1 | Ground | W | 4.00 | 24 | 35 |
D2 | Ground | SW | 5.00 | 30 | 34 |
D3 | 1st | NE | 4.22 | 29 | 34 |
D4 | 2nd (Top) | SW | 4.40 | 24 | 30 |
D5 | Ground | S | 22.99 | 23 | 31 |
Naturally Ventilated Classrooms | Mechanically Ventilated Classrooms | ||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Class Number | A1 | A2 | A3 | A4 | A5 | B2 | C1 | C2 | C3 | C4 | C5 | D2 | D3 | D4 | B1 | B4 | B5 | D1 | D5 |
Average Peak CO2 (ppm) | 945 | 1186 | 982 | 1043 | 1137 | 1710 | 1192 | 1032 | 1396 | 1028 | 1343 | 1624 | 1410 | 1704 | 1459 | 1413 | 2001 | 1213 | 664 |
ACH (h−1) | 10.2 | 5.4 | 6.3 | 3.6 | 2.9 | 2.2 | 2.7 | 4.1 | 2.6 | 2.7 | 1.9 | 1.8 | 2.4 | 1.9 | 3.2 | 2.7 | 1.0 | 3.7 | 10.6 |
Ventilation rate per person (l/s/pers.) | 7.54 | 5.44 | 7.35 | 6.09 | 5.32 | 3.05 | 4.86 | 6.1 | 4.01 | 6.18 | 4.05 | 3.1 | 3.77 | 2.92 | 3.89 | 3.81 | 2.39 | 4.88 | 15.39 |
average ACH | 3.6 | 4.2 | |||||||||||||||||
average Ventilation rate | 4.99 | 6.08 | |||||||||||||||||
average ACH Victorian buildings only | 2.5 | ||||||||||||||||||
average Ventilation rate Victorian only | 4.38 | ||||||||||||||||||
average ACH newer buildings only | 5.1 | ||||||||||||||||||
average Ventilation rate newer only | 5.80 |
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Bain-Reguis, N.; Smith, A.; Martin, C.H.; Currie, J. Indoor CO2 and Thermal Conditions in Twenty Scottish Primary School Classrooms with Different Ventilation Systems during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Pollutants 2022, 2, 180-204. https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants2020014
Bain-Reguis N, Smith A, Martin CH, Currie J. Indoor CO2 and Thermal Conditions in Twenty Scottish Primary School Classrooms with Different Ventilation Systems during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Pollutants. 2022; 2(2):180-204. https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants2020014
Chicago/Turabian StyleBain-Reguis, Natalie, Andrew Smith, Caroline Hollins Martin, and John Currie. 2022. "Indoor CO2 and Thermal Conditions in Twenty Scottish Primary School Classrooms with Different Ventilation Systems during the COVID-19 Pandemic" Pollutants 2, no. 2: 180-204. https://doi.org/10.3390/pollutants2020014