The Role of Industrial Catalysts in Accelerating the Renewable Energy Transition ^†

Abstract

Industrial catalysts are accelerating the global transition toward renewable energy, serving as enablers for innovative technologies that enhance efficiency, lower costs, and improve environmental sustainability. This review explores the pivotal roles of industrial catalysts in hydrogen production, biofuel generation, and biomass conversion, highlighting their transformative impact on renewable energy systems. Precious-metal-based electrocatalysts such as ruthenium (Ru), iridium (Ir), and platinum (Pt) demonstrate high efficiency but face challenges due to their cost and stability. Alternatives like nickel-cobalt oxide (NiCo₂O₄) and Ti₃C₂ MXene materials show promise in addressing these limitations, enabling cost-effective and scalable hydrogen production. Additionally, nickel-based catalysts supported on alumina optimize SMR, reducing coke formation and improving efficiency. In biofuel production, heterogeneous catalysts play a crucial role in converting biomass into valuable fuels. Co-based bimetallic catalysts enhance hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) processes, improving the yield of biofuels like dimethylfuran (DMF) and γ-valerolactone (GVL). Innovative materials such as biochar, red mud, and metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) facilitate sustainable waste-to-fuel conversion and biodiesel production, offering environmental and economic benefits. Power-to-X technologies, which convert renewable electricity into chemical energy carriers like hydrogen and synthetic fuels, rely on advanced catalysts to improve reaction rates, selectivity, and energy efficiency. Innovations in non-precious metal catalysts, nanostructured materials, and defect-engineered catalysts provide solutions for sustainable energy systems. These advancements promise to enhance efficiency, reduce environmental footprints, and ensure the viability of renewable energy technologies.

1. Introduction

Industrial catalysts are at the heart of renewable energy technologies, driving innovations that enhance energy efficiency, reduce environmental impacts, and improve economic viability. The use of industrial catalysts in renewable energy systems particularly in hydrogen production, fuel cell technology, and biofuel generation is significant, as illustrated in Figure 1. These catalysts facilitate critical reactions in energy conversion, storage, and utilization, making them indispensable for the transition toward sustainable energy systems. In the domain of electrocatalysis, innovative materials like Ti₃C₂ MXene are gaining significant attention for hydrogen production, especially when combined with transition metal phosphides or chalcogenides, which markedly enhance their catalytic performance and hydrogen generation efficiency [1]. Biomass and renewable fuels, palladium, nickel, and copper-based catalysts are crucial in autothermal reforming, especially for hydrogen production from biomass-derived glucose; careful control of oxygen levels in these processes helps reduce char formation while increasing hydrogen yield [2]. Additionally, Re/TiO₂ catalysts have emerged as highly effective in the hydrodeoxygenation of fatty acids, enabling the production of drop-in biofuels from lipid-based waste with high conversion rates and durability [3]. Industrial catalysts also play key roles in enabling Power-to-X technologies, which convert surplus renewable electricity into energy-dense carriers like hydrogen, ammonia, and synthetic fuels. These advanced catalysts improve reaction rates, selectivity, and overall energy efficiency, making storage and transport of renewable energy more practical and cost-effective [4,5]. In hydrogen production, electrocatalysts such as nickel-cobalt oxide and Ti₃C₂ MXene support key reactions like oxygen and hydrogen evolution, reducing energy barriers and improving output, thus reinforcing the viability of green hydrogen as a fossil fuel substitute [1,6]. Furthermore, catalysts are pivotal in CO₂ reduction efforts, transforming greenhouse gases into value-added chemicals and fuels through the use of cutting-edge materials like single-atom catalysts and carbon dots, which offer high activity and selectivity [7,8]. In biofuel production, magnetizable geopolymer and molybdenum carbide catalysts enhance biomass conversion by optimizing reaction mechanisms, increasing yields, and minimizing unwanted by-products, contributing to the sustainability and scalability of biofuels [9,10].

2. Industrial Catalysts in Hydrogen Production

Hydrogen production has become a cornerstone of the global shift toward cleaner energy systems. Catalysts play a vital role in facilitating the key chemical transformations involved in producing hydrogen from various sources, as shown in Figure 2. Their performance determines the efficiency, cost, and scalability of hydrogen production processes. In water splitting processes, electrocatalysts such as ruthenium (Ru), iridium (Ir), and their oxides (RuO₂, IrO₂), along with platinum (Pt), are extensively used for hydrogen evolution reactions (HERs) and oxygen evolution reactions (OERs). Despite their effectiveness, the high cost and stability issues of these materials present significant challenges [6]. To address these limitations, nickel-cobalt oxide (NiCo₂O₄) has emerged as a promising alternative, offering cost-effectiveness, high conductivity, and numerous active sites for OER [6]. Similarly, nickel-based catalysts supported on alumina are employed in steam methane reforming (SMR), a process for hydrogen production. These catalysts optimize reaction conditions, enhancing efficiency and mitigating coke formation [11].

2.1. Steam Methane Reforming (SMR)

Steam methane reforming is the most widely used method for industrial hydrogen production.

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Catalysts: Nickel (Ni)-based catalysts are predominantly used due to their high activity and relatively low cost. However, Ni catalysts are susceptible to carbon deposition and metal sintering, which can reduce long-term performance [11,12].

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Advancements: To address these challenges, bimetallic catalysts—comprising Ni and metals such as Co, Cu, or noble elements—have demonstrated enhanced thermal stability, coke resistance, and catalytic activity. These advances contribute to higher hydrogen yield and longer catalyst life [12].

2.2. Ammonia Decomposition

Ammonia cracking offers a promising route for producing COx-free hydrogen, especially in decentralized systems.

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Catalysts: Effective ammonia decomposition requires catalysts with a balance of active components (like Ru or Ni), robust supports, and promoters to boost performance. Optimized reactor designs, such as membrane or packed-bed reactors, are employed for improved conversion [13].

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Future Trends: Research is moving toward low-cost and scalable catalysts with greater selectivity and stability under practical operating conditions [14].

2.3. Water Splitting (Electrolysis)

Water electrolysis is crucial for producing green hydrogen using renewable electricity.

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Catalysts: Platinum group metals (PGMs) like Pt and Ir offer excellent efficiency but are costly and scarce. As alternatives, non-precious metal catalysts—including Ni, Fe, Co, and their oxides or phosphides—are being developed for both the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) and oxygen evolution reaction (OER) [15].

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Innovations: Trimetallic catalysts, combining three active metals, have demonstrated superior catalytic synergy, stability, and long-term durability, making them suitable for scalable electrolyzers [16].

2.4. Methanol Steam Reforming (SRM)

SRM is a compact and efficient method for hydrogen production, especially in portable and low-temperature systems.

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Catalysts: Cu and Ni-based catalysts are widely used for SRM due to their good hydrogen yield at moderate temperatures. However, challenges like coke formation and metal agglomeration impact their effectiveness [17].

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Solutions: Novel catalyst supports such as carbon nanotubes and metal–organic frameworks (MOFs), as well as bimetallic configurations, are being explored to improve dispersion, reduce deactivation, and boost performance [17].

2.5. Biomass-Derived Hydrogen Production

Biomass reforming provides a renewable pathway for sustainable hydrogen generation.

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Catalysts: Nanostructured and multicomponent catalysts are being developed to handle complex feedstocks like bio-oil and glycerol. These catalysts enhance selectivity, resist poisoning, and improve reforming efficiency [16].

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Applications: Such catalysts are highly versatile and can be applied in both aqueous-phase reforming and photo-electrochemical water splitting, making them essential for decentralized, renewable hydrogen systems.

3. Industrial Catalysts in Biofuel Production

Heterogeneous catalysts are pivotal in converting biomass into biofuels. Co-based bimetallic catalysts, for instance, facilitate hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) of biomass-derived oxygenates, significantly improving the yield of biofuels such as dimethylfuran (DMF) and γ-valerolactone (GVL) [18]. Waste-derived materials like biochar and red mud also play a role in sustainable fuel production, serving as catalysts in transesterification and pyrolysis processes with environmental and economic advantages [19]. Additionally, metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have emerged as effective catalysts for biomass conversion and biodiesel production. Their customizable pore structures and large surface areas enhance their performance in these applications [20]. Industrial catalysts play a crucial role in the production of biofuels, particularly biodiesel, by enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of the process. The detailed overview of the types and roles of catalysts in biofuel production is shown in

Table 1. Catalysts in biofuel production summary.

Catalyst Type	Examples	Advantages	Challenges
Homogeneous Acid	H2SO4, H3PO4	High reaction rates	Difficult separation, high waste generation
Homogeneous Base	NaOH, KOH	Effective for high-quality feedstocks	Ineffective for low-quality feedstocks
Heterogeneous Acid	Sulfated zirconia, alumina	Reusability, easy separation	Lower activity compared to base catalysts
Heterogeneous Base	CaO, MgO, ZrO2	High stability, reusability	Cannot esterify large amounts of FFAs
Biocatalysts	Lipases	High selectivity, mild conditions	High cost, limited industrial use
Nanocatalysts	Metal oxides, nanoparticles	High surface area, catalytic efficiency	Thermal stability issues

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3.1. Types of Catalysts in Biofuel Production

3.1.1. Homogeneous Catalysts

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Acid Catalysts: Examples include H₂SO₄ and H₃PO₄. They are effective but pose challenges in separation and recovery, leading to high waste generation [21,22].

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Base Catalysts: Common examples are NaOH and KOH. They are highly effective for high-quality feedstocks but less so for low-quality feedstocks due to the need for pretreatment [21,23].

3.1.2. Heterogeneous Catalysts

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Acid and Base Catalysts: These include metal oxides like CaO, MgO, and ZrO₂. They offer advantages in terms of reusability, easy separation, and reduced waste [22,23,24].

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Nanocatalysts: These have high surface areas and catalytic efficiencies, making them highly effective for biodiesel production [25,26,27].

3.1.3. Biocatalysts

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Enzymes: Lipases are commonly used for their high selectivity and mild reaction conditions. However, their high cost limits their industrial use [21,28].

3.2. Roles and Advantages of Catalysts in Biofuel Production

Efficiency: Catalysts significantly increase the reaction rate, making the production process faster and more efficient [21,25].

Sustainability: Heterogeneous catalysts, in particular, are more environmentally friendly due to their reusability and lower waste generation [22,24,29].

Cost-Effectiveness: While homogeneous catalysts are effective, their separation and recovery costs are high. Heterogeneous catalysts, on the other hand, reduce overall production costs due to their reusability [22,23,24]. Homogeneous catalysts are difficult to separate from the final product, leading to high purification costs and waste [22,25]. Catalysts, while effective, are expensive, and their use is limited by their high cost [21,28]. Catalytic activity can be influenced by factors such as surface area, thermal conditions, and the presence of promoters [25,30]. Recent research focuses on metal-oxide-based catalysts like CaO, MgO, and ZrO₂, which show high activity and stability [22]. Nanocatalysts are being developed to improve catalytic efficiency and selectivity, making them a promising area for future research [25,26].

4. Industrial Catalysts in Fuel Cells: Efficiency Improvements

Catalysts are fundamental to the enhanced performance of fuel cells, as they facilitate the essential electrochemical reactions that convert chemical energy into electrical energy. One major way they contribute is by accelerating reaction rates, notably through the use of platinum, a highly active yet costly material. To reduce dependency on platinum, alternative strategies involve using palladium or gold layers to maintain high efficiency while improving stability in acidic conditions [31]. Nanostructured catalysts, particularly high-index facet metal nanoparticles, are also gaining attention for their superior catalytic activity and potential for reusing spent materials, which enhances fuel cell longevity and efficiency. Cost reduction is another crucial area where catalysts make a difference. Non-precious metal catalysts, especially those made from heteroatom-doped porous carbon, offer an affordable alternative with high electrical conductivity and abundant active sites [32,33]. Carbon nanomaterials such as nanotubes and graphene further aid in minimizing platinum usage by acting as efficient catalyst supports due to their large surface area and exceptional conductivity [34,35]. Beyond cost, improving the stability and durability of fuel cells is essential, particularly in corrosive environments. Employing corrosion-resistant materials and innovative designs such as PtRu alloy nanoparticles supported on nanoporous gold has proven effective for enhancing methanol oxidation reactions [36,37]. Structural optimizations also play a role, as demonstrated by modifications like extending the anode catalyst region in micro-direct methanol fuel cells (µDMFCs), which significantly increases power density without enlarging the device footprint [38]. Similarly, constructing a gradient catalyst layer helps boost methanol oxidation while reducing crossover effects, leading to better overall cell performance [39]. Novel catalyst designs such as IrRu alloys have also shown promising results in alkaline anion-exchange membrane fuel cells by offering higher hydrogen oxidation reaction (HOR) activity than conventional Pt/C catalysts [40]. Likewise, molybdenum carbide (Mo₂C) integrated with In³⁺-doped SnP₂O₇ electrolytes has emerged as a platinum-free alternative that exhibits strong CO tolerance and comparable catalytic efficiency [41]. Altogether, advancements in catalyst materials and design continue to drive significant improvements in fuel cell efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and durability, paving the way for broader adoption in clean energy technologies.

5. Challenges and Future Outlook of Industrial Catalysts in the Energy Sector

Industrial catalysts are essential in driving innovations within the energy sector, but they also face a range of challenges that must be overcome to fully support the transition toward sustainable energy. One of the key technical and economic barriers lies in developing catalysts for complex processes such as fuel reforming and NOx control, which are crucial for the advancement of hydrogen-based fuel cells and lean-burn combustion technologies [42]. Additionally, the long-term stability of catalysts under industrial conditions remains a significant hurdle, with many systems lacking realistic stability measurements and clear insights into degradation pathways [43]. From a material and process efficiency standpoint, high activity, selectivity, cost efficiency, and durability are all essential properties that are not easily achieved simultaneously. The demand for catalysts that can accommodate feedstock flexibility, reduce energy consumption, and improve selectivity is particularly pressing in the context of decreasing dependence on fossil raw materials and advancing electrified synthetic processes [44]. Moreover, the environmental implications of catalytic processes cannot be overlooked. The development of environmentally friendly catalysts for emission and pollution control and biomass transformation is essential to address growing environmental concerns [45]. The integration of nanotechnology, though promising, faces scalability issues, particularly in upstream oil and gas applications where transitioning from lab-scale to reservoir-scale remains a complex task [46,47]. Looking ahead, fostering multidisciplinary interaction and streamlining the path from discovery to industrialization will be critical for future progress [48]. The focus is shifting toward developing catalysts from earth-abundant materials to support renewable energy processes such as water splitting and hydrogen generation, with detailed molecular-level understanding serving as a guide for improved catalyst design [49]. Furthermore, innovations in catalytic processes for renewable hydrogen production, advanced electrodes for photovoltaic and fuel cells, and solar fuel generation represent major frontiers in energy technology [50]. As renewable energy sources inherently fluctuate, future catalysts must be robust and adaptable to dynamic reaction conditions, which necessitates advanced operando spectroscopy, kinetic modeling, and modular reactor systems [51]. Nanocatalysts also show great promise in downstream processing and heavy oil upgrading, improving the efficiency and sustainability of resource extraction [52]. Finally, the application of computational techniques for the rational design of heterogeneous catalysts is opening new pathways to optimize catalytic performance and align with the goals of a renewable energy-driven industry [20]. Another key set of challenges facing industrial catalysts in the energy sector includes cost, stability, and environmental sustainability. The high cost and limited supply of noble metals continue to limit the widespread use of traditional high-efficiency catalysts. Research is focusing on earth-abundant alternatives with comparable electrochemical performance [14]. Additionally, catalyst deactivation due to sintering, poisoning, or coking remains a major issue in industrial operations. Bimetallic and trimetallic designs have emerged as effective solutions to improve resistance and prolong catalyst life [12,16]. Furthermore, the environmental impact of catalyst production and end-of-life disposal is also a growing concern. Novel approaches, such as using waste materials like ceramic frits as catalyst supports, are being investigated for more sustainable practices [53].

6. Ecological Footprint of Different Types of Catalysts

The ecological footprint of catalysts employed in renewable energy technologies remains a critical consideration in the global transition toward sustainable energy systems. While numerous studies emphasize the potential of certain catalytic materials to reduce environmental impact, there is growing recognition that life cycle performance, sustainability, and scalability vary widely across catalyst types. A comparative analysis reveals conflicting findings, gaps in knowledge, and emerging pathways that merit further exploration. Platinum group metals (PGMs)—despite their established efficiency in catalytic hydrogenation and dehydrogenation—continue to be scrutinized for their environmental costs. Rey, Barrio, and Agirre (2025) conducted a life cycle assessment (LCA) of PGMs used in Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carrier (LOHC) systems and found that their extraction and high-temperature operation result in a disproportionately large ecological footprint. Even though low-PGM alternatives showed improvements, the environmental benefit is marginal unless the entire production and operational system is optimized. Contrastingly, other studies do not sufficiently quantify these operational trade-offs, leaving ambiguity around whether low-PGM catalysts truly offer net environmental gains at scale. In stark contrast, waste-derived nanocatalysts have emerged as strong candidates for green hydrogen production [54]. Christopher Selvam et al. (2025) report that catalysts synthesized from agricultural and municipal waste not only reduce the carbon footprint but also deliver 30% higher hydrogen yields. However, this optimism is tempered by questions around consistency in catalyst performance and quality due to the variability of waste feedstock. Moreover, few studies have conducted cradle-to-grave LCAs on these materials, leaving open questions regarding long-term stability, recyclability, and potential leaching of toxic by-products during degradation [55]. Calcium zincate (CAZN) catalysts, as reported by Arfelis et al. (2023), show a dramatic 97% reduction in global warming potential when synthesized through hydro-micro-mechanical synthesis (HMMS), compared to conventional lithium-based battery materials. While these results are compelling, the environmental advantages are closely tied to the specific synthesis route. Current studies have not yet tested CAZN catalysts in large-scale industrial scenarios or addressed their end-of-life handling, thus limiting their generalizability. Future research must examine the balance between material abundance, synthetic energy demand, and system integration to confirm their long-term sustainability. The ecological performance of nickel-based catalysts, particularly in CO₂ methanation, is less clear-cut [56]. Medina et al. (2025) suggest that structured Ni-catalysts—such as foams and monoliths—improve both catalytic efficiency and environmental performance. Nevertheless, some LCAs indicate that nickel mining and refinement remain energy-intensive and emit significant quantities of pollutants. A major unresolved issue is the recyclability of Ni-based catalysts under repeated high-temperature cycles, which could offset their initially low footprint. Biochar catalysts are widely used for their low environmental impact [57]. According to Frazier, Jin, and Kumar (2015), biochar achieves a 93% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and requires 95.7% less energy for production than metal-based catalysts. Yet, the ecological benefits depend strongly on the source biomass and pyrolysis conditions. Furthermore, biochar’s potential adverse effects on land use and soil health remain underexplored, especially when scaled for industrial applications. These concerns suggest a need for region-specific LCA models that incorporate agricultural and ecological variables. The use of nanocatalysts in biodiesel production also presents mixed findings [58]. Damian et al. (2025) highlight their high efficiency and improved selectivity but also note that their synthesis methods often involve toxic solvents, high energy inputs, or rare earth elements, raising sustainability concerns. Most studies focus on catalytic performance without integrating full life cycle perspectives, thereby obscuring trade-offs related to waste generation, energy input, and post-use recovery. Bioleaching for nickel recovery presents a biologically friendly approach that offers reduced emissions and lower energy consumption [59]. Kusuma et al. (2025) argue that bioleaching, particularly when coupled with hydrometallurgy, enhances resource recovery and aligns well with circular economy principles. However, bioleaching remains constrained by slow reaction rates, microbial sensitivity to impurities, and inconsistent yields. Scalable and industrially viable systems remain elusive, suggesting that bioleaching may be better suited as a complementary rather than a primary recovery method unless breakthroughs in microbial engineering are achieved [60].

Despite encouraging developments, several scientific uncertainties remain unresolved. Life cycle trade-offs between raw material sourcing, synthesis energy demand, operational efficiency, and end-of-life treatment remain under-characterized across most catalyst categories. Scalability vs. sustainability tension is evident in almost all catalyst systems—materials that perform well in laboratory settings may not retain ecological advantages at industrial scales. Feedstock variability and synthesis reproducibility are especially problematic for waste-derived and bio-based catalysts [59].

The future research scope includes standardized LCA methodologies that are harmonized across studies to allow for direct comparison. Integration of AI-based modeling can predict long-term catalyst performance and degradation pathways under different operational conditions. Hybrid catalyst systems combine the stability of metal-based systems with the sustainability of bio-based materials [57,58].

7. Results and Discussion

The use of industrial catalysts across hydrogen production, biofuel synthesis, and fuel cell technology has significantly advanced the performance, efficiency, and sustainability of clean energy systems. In hydrogen production, catalysts play a pivotal role in various methods such as steam methane reforming (SMR), ammonia decomposition, water electrolysis, and methanol steam reforming. Nickel-based catalysts remain widely used in SMR due to their affordability and strong catalytic activity. However, to address issues like carbon deposition and sintering, more advanced bimetallic catalysts have been developed, offering improved thermal stability and longer operational lifetimes. In ammonia decomposition, ruthenium and nickel catalysts supported on robust structures enable high conversion rates and hydrogen purity, making the process suitable for decentralized applications. Water electrolysis benefits from platinum group metals for efficient hydrogen and oxygen evolution reactions, though recent research has led to the development of non-precious metal alternatives like nickel-cobalt oxides and trimetallic catalysts that offer enhanced stability and scalability. In the biofuel sector, catalysts enhance the conversion of biomass into liquid fuels, increasing both yield and process efficiency. Heterogeneous catalysts, such as metal oxides and nanomaterials, have emerged as highly effective due to their reusability, ease of separation, and environmental friendliness. Co-based bimetallic catalysts significantly improve the hydrodeoxygenation of biomass-derived compounds, resulting in higher-quality fuels. Nanocatalysts with high surface areas and tunable properties have also been instrumental in optimizing reaction conditions and minimizing by-products. Additionally, the use of metal–organic frameworks and waste-derived materials such as red mud and biochar has furthered the sustainability of biofuel production. Although biocatalysts like lipases offer excellent selectivity under mild conditions, their industrial deployment remains limited due to high costs. Fuel cells have also seen major improvements through catalyst innovation. Platinum remains the most efficient catalyst for proton exchange membrane fuel cells, but high costs and resource limitations have driven the development of palladium, gold, and non-precious metal alternatives. Advanced carbon nanomaterials like graphene and nanotubes serve as superior catalyst supports, enabling reduced noble metal usage while maintaining high conductivity and dispersion. Structural innovations such as gradient catalyst layers and micro-anode designs have increased power density and efficiency without increasing device size. Furthermore, platinum-free systems using molybdenum carbide and other novel materials are demonstrating promising performance with enhanced CO tolerance and durability. Overall, catalysts continue to be the cornerstone of advancements in renewable energy technologies.

8. Conclusions

The strategic deployment of industrial catalysts in renewable energy systems has emerged as a cornerstone in advancing sustainable and efficient energy technologies. In hydrogen production, catalysts such as nickel-based systems, bimetallic alloys, and advanced nanostructured materials enable effective transformation pathways including steam methane reforming, ammonia decomposition, methanol reforming, and water electrolysis. These catalytic processes improve hydrogen yield, reduce operational costs, and contribute to cleaner production strategies. Notably, non-noble metal catalysts are gaining prominence as sustainable alternatives to platinum group metals, addressing cost and scalability issues in large-scale electrolysis.

For biofuel production, both homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts are essential in processes such as transesterification and hydrodeoxygenation. Catalysts like calcium oxide, zirconia, and enzyme-based systems have shown promise in enhancing biodiesel output from waste and non-edible feedstocks. Additionally, the integration of nanocatalysts supports greater efficiency and feedstock flexibility, advancing the commercial viability of biofuels. Fuel cells, another critical component of clean energy infrastructure, rely on highly active and durable catalysts to facilitate electrochemical reactions. While platinum-based catalysts have traditionally dominated the field, emerging alternatives like carbon nanotubes and doped metal oxides offer promising performance at reduced cost. These innovations not only improve fuel cell longevity but also support broader application in portable, stationary, and transportation energy systems. Overall, industrial catalysts are indispensable for optimizing conversion efficiencies, reducing emissions, and enhancing the economic feasibility of renewable energy technologies. Continued research into catalyst design, sustainability, and system integration will be vital to achieving a resilient and low-carbon global energy framework.