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Background:
Systematic Review

Female Genital Mutilation in Sierra Leone: A Systematic Review of Cultural Practices, Health Impacts, and Pathways to Eradication

by
Julia Argentina Rodríguez-Pastor
and
Antonio Jesús Molina-Fernández
*
Social and Cultural Determinants of Health Research Group, Department of Social, Work and Differential Psychology, Complutense University of Madrid, 28223 Madrid, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Women 2025, 5(2), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/women5020018
Submission received: 31 March 2025 / Revised: 24 May 2025 / Accepted: 26 May 2025 / Published: 30 May 2025
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Abstract

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) remains a deeply entrenched cultural practice affecting millions of women and girls worldwide, with particularly high prevalence in Sierra Leone. Despite international efforts to eradicate FGM due to its severe consequences, it persists as a social norm, often reinforced by traditional institutions such as the Bondo society. This paper explores the historical, cultural, and social dimensions of FGM in Sierra Leone, examining the role of the Bondo society in perpetuating the practice and its implications for women’s rights and health. This study analyzes the existing literature to understand both the resilience of FGM as a practice and the challenges faced by intervention programs. A total of eight peer-reviewed studies were included in the final synthesis. The findings highlight the complex intersection of tradition, gender identity, and societal expectations, which sustain FGM despite legal and advocacy efforts. The paper further discusses potential strategies for mitigating FGM, including community-based awareness programs, legal reforms, and engagement with cultural gatekeepers to promote alternative rites of passage. The study concludes that while progress is being made, a culturally sensitive, grassroots approach is essential for the long-term eradication of FGM in Sierra Leone.

1. Introduction

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is a deeply rooted cultural practice that affects millions of women and girls worldwide. This practice, which involves the partial or total removal of the external female genitalia for non-medical reasons, is recognized as a violation of the human rights of girls and women by international bodies, such as the World Health Organization [1] and UNICEF [2].
The World Health Organization [1] classifies FGM into four categories. Type I refers to partial or complete excision of the clitoral glans. Type II involves the excision of the clitoral glans and partial removal of the labia minora. Type III, also known as infibulation, entails the removal of all external genitalia, followed by suturing of the vulva, leaving only a small orifice for urinary and menstrual flow. Type IV includes all other harmful procedures such as pricking, piercing, incising, scraping, and cauterization.
This endurance is attributed to the prevailing cultural narratives that frame FGM as essential for safeguarding health, moral integrity, and social acceptance. Complex social, cultural, and economic dynamics influence attitudinal support for FGM. FGM is often justified as a prerequisite for marriage, a mechanism to preserve virginity, and a means to enhance social status. Despite global efforts to eradicate FGM, it remains prevalent in many regions, particularly in parts of Africa, with Sierra Leone being a notable example, where over 80% of women aged 15 to 49 have undergone the procedure [3,4].
In Sierra Leone, FGM is closely linked to the Bondo society, a powerful women’s secret society that plays a central role in initiating girls into womanhood [4,5]. This initiation process, which includes FGM, is viewed as a rite of passage and a vital part of cultural identity and social standing [4,6,7]. Traditionally, the rite was performed upon a girl’s first menstruation, which marked her entry into society.
However, due to evolving legislation and the necessity for greater discretion, FGM is now practiced on both adult women and infants. The initiation ritual is conducted in the forest (“the bush”) in the presence of family members and society affiliates. During the ceremony, practitioners (“sowies”) perform mutilation, after which the initiation is either dressed or painted in white and reintroduced to the community, symbolizing purification and her formal integration into Bondo society. Membership is often considered essential for social acceptance, marriageability, and active participation in community life. Aside from mutilation, Bondo society promotes various enriching cultural values for women. Preserving cultural heritage remains critical for the Sierra Leonean women. Nonetheless, the cultural and social significance of FGM makes combating the practice particularly challenging, as it is deeply embedded in societal values and traditions [6,8,9].
Various socioeconomic and political factors further complicate the persistence of FGM in Sierra Leone. Poverty rates, low literacy levels, and limited access to health care contribute to the ongoing prevalence of the practice. Moreover, the absence of strong legal frameworks and enforcement mechanisms to protect girls and women exacerbates this situation [5,8]. While Sierra Leone ratified international conventions condemning FGM, national legislation is either lacking or poorly enforced, allowing the practice to continue with minimal legal consequences for offenders [5,10,11]. The prevalence of practice varies across regions and is influenced by educational levels, religious affiliations, and community norms. In these discussions, the extensive stigmatization of uncut girls often leads to social exclusion, fostering an environment where FGM is continuously justified as necessary for social conformity [9,12]. This highlights not only the internalized views on gender and value in society but also illustrates the struggles women face in breaking free from harmful cycles of oppression [13,14].
The relationship between gender inequality and FGM is significant. In many Sierra Leonean communities, FGM is perceived as a means of controlling female sexuality, ensuring chastity, and maintaining social order [9]. These gender norms and expectations are upheld by both men and women, creating a complex web of social pressures that sustains the practice [14,15]. Efforts to challenge these norms often face resistance from traditional leaders, communities, and even women who view FGM as a vital aspect of their cultural heritage and identity [6,14,15]. Despite these challenges, significant local and international efforts have been made to combat FGM in Sierra Leone. Various non-governmental organizations, community groups, and international bodies have launched campaigns to raise awareness, educate communities, and advocate for legislative change. However, the impact of these interventions has been mixed, with some success in reducing FGM prevalence in certain areas, yet limited overall progress has been made in completely eradicating the practice [5,6].
Governmental responses to FGM in Sierra Leone reveal a complex and fragmented policy landscape. While formal laws are aimed at prohibiting FGM, enforcement remains inconsistent and is often undermined by local adherence to traditional customs. Government policies may attempt to regulate or control practices; however, they frequently do so without fully engaging with or being receptive to community perspectives. Thus, interventions grounded in a top-down approach may lack efficacy, indicating the need for policies that incorporate community voices and prioritize local traditions. In context, FGM is recognized internationally as a human rights violation whose reasons are based on gender [16], underscoring the pressing need for holistic interventions that address gender inequities at both local and international levels.
Moreover, international interventions aimed at combating FGM have had varying degrees of impact on local attitudes toward the practice. While some initiatives have successfully altered perceptions and garnered support for anti-FGM advocacy, others have faced resistance, often perceived as Western impositions on traditional lifestyles. This resistance stems not only from cultural pride but also from fears of social exclusion within communities. Hence, community-based education and empowerment campaigns have emerged as crucial elements in fostering local advocacy for FGM. The literature underscores the ongoing need for context-sensitive approaches to inform effective advocacy, given the complex sociocultural landscape in which the practice is embedded.
Ultimately, this review aims to contribute to the broader discourse on FGM in the specific context of Sierra Leone. Despite the breadth of the literature on FGM in Sierra Leone, significant limitations persist. Consequently, this study aims to review and critically assess the existing scientific research on FGM in Sierra Leone. By analyzing the quantity and quality of available studies, this review seeks to establish a comprehensive theoretical framework that captures the cultural, social, and mental health dimensions sustaining practice. The ultimate objective is to inform and support the development of evidence-based, culturally sensitive interventions that address the psychological needs of affected populations.

2. Materials and Methods

This study adopts a systematic review methodology following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines [17]. The primary aim was to identify and evaluate empirical peer-reviewed research that addresses Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Sierra Leone, with a focus on psychological, health, cultural, and social aspects. It placed particular emphasis on determining the number and quality of methodologically robust studies on the topic.

2.1. Search Strategy

The search strategy used Boolean operators and was adapted to each database engine. Searches were carried out using variations of the keywords: “FGM”, “female genital mutilation”, “female circumcision”, and “Sierra Leone”. Results were filtered by publication date (2000–2025) and language (English). All included studies were peer-reviewed journal articles. The search was focused on identifying studies with empirical methods, whether qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods, to enable a systematic analysis of the quality and scope of research on FGM in Sierra Leone. Articles, books, chapters, and the grey literature were excluded. Reference lists of key articles were also reviewed to identify additional relevant studies.

2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

To be included in the review, studies had to (1) be published in English in peer-reviewed journals between January 2000 and December 2025, (2) focus specifically on FGM within the context of Sierra Leone, and (3) provide a clearly described methodology that allowed for quality appraisal. Studies that addressed FGM only as a secondary topic focused exclusively on other countries or lacked a defined methodology were excluded. Methodological transparency (e.g., opinion pieces or non-empirical reports) was also excluded. Although the search initially covered the literature from 2000, the final sample includes only studies published between 2012 and 2025, as earlier works did not meet the methodological inclusion criteria.

2.3. Study Selection

A systematic literature search was conducted using three research databases: PubMed (including MEDLINE), Semantic Scholar, and ResearchGate. BMC was excluded from the final analysis as it is a publishing platform rather than a database. Duplicate records were removed manually. Searches were limited to titles and abstracts containing the terms:
(“Female Genital Mutilation” OR “FGM” OR “Female Circumcision”) AND (“Sierra Leone”)
Filters were applied to include only peer-reviewed journal articles written in English. Articles were selected based on whether they addressed FGM in Sierra Leone and contained enough methodological detail to be assessed for quality. A total of 700 records were initially identified. After excluding 618 irrelevant entries based on title and abstract, 82 studies were screened. Of these, 35 were excluded for lacking empirical content or relevant focus. After full-text screening of 12 eligible studies, 4 were excluded for methodological insufficiency. The final review included 8 studies. The selection process is summarized in the PRISMA Flow Diagram (Figure 1).

2.4. Data Extraction and Analysis Procedure

Data extraction was performed manually using a standardized form. Extracted variables included author and year, research objective, location, methodology, sample size and population, and key findings. Studies were grouped by thematic relevance and research focus. A narrative synthesis approach was used to organize the results, allowing for the comparison of findings across studies. Themes were generated based on shared patterns in the data related to prevalence, health outcomes, cultural drivers, and intervention frameworks.

2.5. Quality Assessment

A modified version of the Newcastle–Ottawa Scale [18] was applied to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. This tool assesses sample selection, comparability, and outcome measurement. Each study was rated on a 6-point scale: 1–2 indicating low quality, 3–4 moderate quality, and 5–6 high quality. Studies with insufficient methodological description were excluded during full-text screening. Final quality scores and justification for each rating are provided in Table 1.

3. Results

The studies reviewed explore multiple dimensions of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Sierra Leone. Research highlights a high prevalence of FGM among adolescents its association with early sexual debut, adolescent motherhood, and child marriage. Sociocultural norms strongly support the practice, particularly in rural areas, while higher education and women’s empowerment show complex and sometimes contradictory effects on intentions to continue FGM. Health complications following FGM are common, yet treatment is often sought outside the formal healthcare system. Decision-making is primarily led by women, though male involvement remains significant, and limited evidence of medicalization was observed [22]. Studies also indicate a potential link between early FGM and increased risk of intimate partner violence. Overall, significant research gaps remain, particularly regarding the psychological consequences of FGM and long-term health outcomes.

3.1. Prevalence and Demographic Patterns

FGM remains highly prevalent in Sierra Leone, although the degree of risk varies significantly across the demographic groups. Mchenga [12] reported that 76% of adolescent girls and young women underwent FGM, with strong associations with early sexual debut, adolescent motherhood, and child marriage. This aligns with findings from Bjälkander et al. [4,5], where FGM was predominantly performed between the ages of 10 and 14, reinforcing early transitions into adulthood. However, the age at circumcision interacted with later vulnerability. Van Baak et al. [19] found that women circumcised between 10 and 14 years of age exhibited higher odds of experiencing intimate partner violence (IPV), particularly when married young, suggesting that age at FGM compounds later risks. These findings highlight that the demographic timing of FGM, marriage, and sexual initiation must be considered when assessing vulnerabilities.

3.2. Sociocultural Norms and Intersectionality

The sociocultural framing of the FGM as a rite of passage remains a powerful, sustaining force. Moussaoui et al. [20] found that the cultural endorsement of FGM remains stronger than for other harmful practices, particularly among younger women and older men. However, the intersectionality between gender, age, and education influence these beliefs; as younger women showed slightly lower approval in contrast to older cohorts, resistance was still limited, indicating that generational shifts are uneven. Education appeared to be a protective factor across studies [13], reporting that women with higher educational levels were more likely to oppose FGM. However, empowerment alone does not translate uniformly into abandonment intentions. Ameyaw et al. [13,14] observed that women engaged in the labor force paradoxically had higher intentions to cut their daughters, suggesting that economic empowerment without normative change may reinforce, rather than dismantle, traditional practices. Together, these findings underscore the complexity of cultural change; intersectional factors such as education, gender roles, and economic participation interact in ways that can either challenge or reinforce FGM.

3.3. Health Consequences and Healthcare-Seeking Behaviors

The health risks associated with FGM have been consistently documented. Bjälkander et al. [21] found that 84.5% of women experienced complications, including excessive bleeding and delayed healing. Despite these risks, many sought treatment from traditional healers rather than health professionals, illustrating persistent mistrust or a lack of access to formal healthcare. While health complications were pervasive across studies, their management reflected broader systemic inequalities; women in rural areas, where FGM rates were higher, were more reliant on traditional care. This points to an intersection between geography, healthcare access, and FGM outcomes, which interventions must address.

3.4. Decision-Making, Medicalization, and Gender Dynamics

Decisions regarding FGM were predominantly made by women [5,23], but fathers’ involvement was noted in nearly 28% of cases, complicating the traditional narrative of FGM as being women-led. This finding highlights the need to engage men in anti-FGM advocacy, in contrast to the assumption that FGM is exclusively a women’s issue. Furthermore, although limited, some degree of medicalization was observed, with 13% of FGM procedures performed by health professionals [5] raising ethical concerns about legitimizing the practice through formal healthcare systems. The high agreement between self-reported and observed FGM status [5,23] suggests reasonable reliability of the survey data, although variations in type and severity complicate classification efforts. Furthermore, FGM may differ significantly from that in other nations. For instance, while some communities may emphasize medicalization as a strategy to reduce FGM practices, Sierra Leone has seen limited success with such methods, highlighting the need for innovative and context-specific approaches [15]. A multifaceted strategy that includes grassroots mobilization, education, and community-led initiatives may prove more effective than relying solely on medical interventions.

3.5. Association Between FGM and Intimate Partner Violence

Cross-study comparisons revealed that the role of FGMs in subsequent IPV risk is nuanced. While Van Baak et al. [22] did not find a direct association between undergoing FGM and IPV overall, they reported a significantly higher IPV risk among women circumcised earlier and married young, highlighting critical intersections between FGM, marital timing, and violence. This suggests that FGM alone may not predict IPV unless considered alongside other social vulnerabilities, such as early marriage and limited autonomy. These interactions emphasize the necessity for integrated approaches that simultaneously address multiple compounding risks.

3.6. Additional Insights

This study indicates that education alone may not suffice to eradicate the practice of FGM. A comprehensive, community-driven approach that includes culturally relevant healthcare and involves multiple stakeholders, such as health professionals, religious leaders, government entities, and policymakers, may be crucial to effectively tackle this issue. Furthermore, while FGM and age at marriage were not significantly associated with Intimate Partner Violence (IPV), those circumcised between the ages of 10–14—when the practice typically occurs—showed higher odds of IPV. Among women aged 29 and younger, those circumcised before age 10 and married between ages 10 and 14 were found to be at the greatest risk [22].
The findings shed light on sociocultural practices and their correlation with IPV among women in Sierra Leone, particularly in the context of civil war. Our results emphasize the importance of examining the age at which these practices occur, as this might further increase women’s vulnerability to IPV victimization and underscore the need for tailored interventions that concurrently address both FGM and IPV [21].

4. Discussion

A central theme emerging from this review is the profound influence of community narratives on how FGM is perceived, sustained, and closely tied to cultural identity. Understanding FGM solely as a health issue risks overlooking its deep sociocultural roots embedded within values, beliefs, and social structures. Many women, particularly in rural areas, view FGM as a rite of passage into adulthood [9], often prioritizing cultural belonging over awareness of health risks.
These review findings also align with feminist psychosocial theory, particularly the conceptualization of agency as embedded within social norms [24]. Women’s participation in the perpetuation of FGM reflects forms of agency shaped by cultural expectations rather than active resistance. This perspective challenges conventional empowerment models and suggests that effective interventions must account for internalized and relational beliefs. In parallel, Crenshaw’s [25] intersectional framework provides a lens for understanding how vulnerabilities to FGM are shaped by overlapping factors, such as age [26], education, and geographic location. The overrepresentation of younger, rural, and less-educated women in terms of FGM prevalence underscores the need for targeted, stratified approaches [13,14]. Together, these frameworks support the development of interventions that are both psychologically informed and structurally responsive, as they address the tension between traditional and modern health knowledge that should be addressed to inform meaningful intervention strategies [25].
This review identifies a critical gap in the understanding of the long-term psychological and sexual health consequences of FGM [27,28,29]. Bjälkander et al. [4] emphasized immediate physical complications, but few studies have addressed lasting mental health impacts, such as trauma, depression, or PTSD. This lack of emphasis on psychological outcomes reflects a broader research trend in which the mental health impacts of FGM are often overlooked or insufficiently addressed in existing studies. Moreover, while intersectional factors such as education, gender, and socioeconomic status have been partially explored, the lack of longitudinal and qualitative research limits the ability to capture how FGM shapes women’s lives over time. Future research must adopt a holistic, intersectional lens that considers how overlapping vulnerabilities exacerbate the consequences of FGM and inform more effective community-rooted interventions [30].
The findings of this review highlight urgent priorities for health policy development in Sierra Leone. The persistence of FGM reflects not only legislative gaps but also weak enforcement mechanisms and strong social acceptance of the practice [11,31]. This is consistent with previous research advocating for community-centered strategies that move beyond legal prohibition to engage local perceptions through health education [32,33,34,35] and participatory dialogue. Therefore, policy efforts must extend beyond prohibition, creating spaces for dialogue on health risks and women’s rights. Embedding health education into broader community development initiatives offers a promising avenue for reshaping attitudes [33,34,35]. Moreover, supporting local champions can foster internal advocacy, helping bridge the gap between policy and community acceptance.
Advancing local advocacy through education is critical for challenging the normalization of FGM. Programs must address women’s rights and health literacy while offering culturally respectful alternatives to harmful practices. Experiences, such as Tostan’s community education program in Senegal, demonstrate the transformative potential of participatory approaches [19,30,34,35,36]. Similarly, Ekundayo and Robinson [37] argued that locally rooted participatory interventions often yield greater success in shifting attitudes than top-down or externally imposed programs. Integrating key stakeholders—traditional leaders, religious figures, healthcare providers, and survivors—into the intervention design strengthens cultural legitimacy, builds trust, and increases the likelihood of sustainable change.
The findings of this review highlight the need for intervention strategies that move beyond informational approaches and address the psychological and social mechanisms that sustain FGM. Empowerment Theory [38,39,40] provides a relevant framework by emphasizing the importance of developing individual agency, critical awareness, and the capacity to challenge internalized norms. This is particularly pertinent in the Sierra Leonean context, where women often act as agents in the continuation of FGM despite experiencing harm [37,38]. The Intervention Based on Competences (IBC) model [41,42] complements this perspective by promoting behavioral change through the development of psychosocial skills, such as communication, reflection, and decision-making. Together, these frameworks support the design of culturally sensitive community-based interventions that strengthen individual autonomy while addressing the broader relational and normative dynamics that perpetuate FGM [38,39,40,41,42].
Any effort to eradicate FGM must navigate the delicate balance between promoting health and respecting cultural identities, including men’s and women’s participation [36]. Given the centrality of community narratives, interventions must be deeply rooted in cultural understandings. Working alongside local leaders, valuing indigenous knowledge, and framing dialogue on health and human rights can foster alternative rites of passage that communities can embrace. Critically, women who have experienced FGM must be included in these conversations to ensure that interventions are informed by lived realities rather than imposed ideals [40].

Strengths and Limitations of the Study

This study had several limitations that must be acknowledged. The heterogeneity of methodologies, sample sizes, and regional focus among the included studies may limit the generalizability of the findings and complicate the development of uniform interventions. Potential biases, such as selection, recall, language, and publication bias, may have further influenced the representativeness of the data. Additionally, reliance on quantitative approaches may have overlooked important cultural and experiential dimensions that are essential to understanding the persistence of FGM. The use of secondary data also implies a dependence on the accuracy and scope of previous research, which may not fully capture the complexities of FGM practices in Sierra Leone. Furthermore, measuring attitudinal change remains challenging because of social desirability bias and the difficulty of translating attitudes into behavior, particularly within culturally sensitive contexts.
Nevertheless, a major strength of this review is the systematic consolidation of the available literature on FGM in Sierra Leone despite the limited and predominantly older body of literature. This highlights critical gaps in existing knowledge, particularly regarding long-term psychological and sexual health outcomes for survivors. By exposing the scarcity and datedness of current studies, this review underscores the urgent need for updated context-specific research to inform culturally sensitive and effective intervention strategies. It also established a theoretical foundation for future investigations, emphasizing the necessity of integrating mental health dimensions into anti-FGM efforts.

5. Conclusions

The investigation of FGM in Sierra Leone reveals a complex interplay of cultural, health, and sociopolitical dynamics that necessitates a multifaceted approach toward addressing this critical public health issue. Evidence underscores the high prevalence of FGM in Sierra Leone, with approximately 80% of women and girls affected, demonstrating that the practice remains deeply entrenched in various communities [11]. This continuation suggests a compelling need for immediate and comprehensive policy interventions aligned with local cultural values to foster dialogue around the health consequences associated with FGM.
In summary, the synthesis of findings regarding the prevalence, health implications, and sociocultural dynamics of FGM in Sierra Leone emphasizes the urgent need for informed dialogue and action. Stakeholders can work collaboratively to combat FGM by advocating a holistic understanding that merges cultural sensitivities with health and rights considerations. This endeavor will improve health outcomes for women in Sierra Leone and contribute to a broader global movement aimed at eradicating such harmful practices while fostering cultural respect and empowerment [12].

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, J.A.R.-P. and A.J.M.-F.; methodology, J.A.R.-P. and A.J.M.-F.; validation, A.J.M.-F.; formal analysis J.A.R.-P.; investigation, J.A.R.-P. and A.J.M.-F.; writing—original draft preparation, J.A.R.-P.; writing—review and editing, A.J.M.-F.; visualization, A.J.M.-F.; supervision, A.J.M.-F. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

No new data were created.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Viva Makeni ONG.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Women 05 00018 g001
Figure 1. PRISMA Flowchart [17].
Figure 1. PRISMA Flowchart [17].
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Table 1. FGM PRISMA table.
Table 1. FGM PRISMA table.
StudyAimsMethodsResultsTotal Score (1–6)Rating
[19]Explore how FGM and early marriage influence IPV risk.Logistic regression on DHS 2019 data (n = 3324)FGM at ages 10–14 is associated with higher IPV risk, the strongest risk among women circumcised under age 10 and married early.6High
[12]Assess the association between FGM and sexual behaviors in AGYWCross-sectional DHS data, generalized estimation equation.FGM was associated with early sexual debut, adolescent motherhood, and child marriage; education was protective.6High
[20]Explore norms and beliefs on FGM using innovative measurementSituational judgment tests (SJTs) with 566 respondents.FGM norms are stronger than other harmful practices; age-related differences in acceptance are identified.4Medium
[14]Investigate the link between women’s empowerment and intention to cut daughters.Multilevel logistic regression on DHS 2013 data (n = 7706).Low empowerment is linked to a higher intention to cut knowledge and agency associated with opposition to FGM.6High
[13]Examine educational attainment and attitudes toward FGM discontinuation.Logistic regression on DHS 2013 data (n = 15,228).Higher education, Christianity, urban residence, and wealth correlated with support for FGM abandonment.6High
[4]Investigate FGM health complications and care-seeking behaviors.Structured interviews with 258 women attending clinics.84.5% reported complications; most sought traditional rather than professional healthcare.4Medium
[5]Identify decision-makers for FGM and assess medicalization.Structured interviews with 310 girls aged 10–20.Women are primary decision-makers; fathers are involved in 28% and 13% of FGM procedures performed by health professionals.3Medium
[21]Assess forms of FGM and validate self-reported status.Cross-sectional clinical study (n = 558).High agreement between self-reported and clinically observed FGM status; discrepancies in classification details.5High
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MDPI and ACS Style

Rodríguez-Pastor, J.A.; Molina-Fernández, A.J. Female Genital Mutilation in Sierra Leone: A Systematic Review of Cultural Practices, Health Impacts, and Pathways to Eradication. Women 2025, 5, 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/women5020018

AMA Style

Rodríguez-Pastor JA, Molina-Fernández AJ. Female Genital Mutilation in Sierra Leone: A Systematic Review of Cultural Practices, Health Impacts, and Pathways to Eradication. Women. 2025; 5(2):18. https://doi.org/10.3390/women5020018

Chicago/Turabian Style

Rodríguez-Pastor, Julia Argentina, and Antonio Jesús Molina-Fernández. 2025. "Female Genital Mutilation in Sierra Leone: A Systematic Review of Cultural Practices, Health Impacts, and Pathways to Eradication" Women 5, no. 2: 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/women5020018

APA Style

Rodríguez-Pastor, J. A., & Molina-Fernández, A. J. (2025). Female Genital Mutilation in Sierra Leone: A Systematic Review of Cultural Practices, Health Impacts, and Pathways to Eradication. Women, 5(2), 18. https://doi.org/10.3390/women5020018

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