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Article

Recovering of Biodiversity in Bottomland Hardwood Forests After a Tornado and Salvage Logging in Southern Illinois (USA)

by
Laura A. Schammel
1,*,
Eric J. Holzmueller
1,
John W. Groninger
1,
Charles M. Ruffner
1 and
John L. Nelson
2
1
School of Forestry and Horticulture, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901, USA
2
U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Ava, MO 65608, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Ecologies 2025, 6(2), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/ecologies6020027
Submission received: 12 January 2025 / Revised: 7 March 2025 / Accepted: 9 March 2025 / Published: 1 April 2025
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Catastrophic wind events play important but poorly documented roles in shaping bottomland hardwood forest structure and composition. The objective of this study was to survey a forested wetland area in Illinois, USA, twenty years following a severe tornado (wind speeds ranging from 333–418 km/h). Part of the damaged area had a subsequent salvage logging operation, and we compared the stand structure and composition of these damaged areas to adjacent reference sites. Stem density, basal area, and diversity differed significantly but slightly among disturbance types (p < 0.05). The density of Quercus spp. decreased in regenerated stands, while the density of Fraxinus pennsylvanica and invasive non-native species cover increased (p < 0.05). Salvage logging further increased the density of key bottomland taxa: Salix spp., Taxodium distichum, and Nyssa aquatica, as well as early successional species such as Liriodendron tulipifera (p < 0.05). Productivity did not differ between wind-impacted areas that were logged and not logged (p > 0.05). Recognizing the need for caution when informing management with case studies, this study highlights the value of delaying the assessment of even extreme wind disturbance impacts in hardwood forest recovery until the contribution of crown regrowth of severely wind-damaged trees, along with post-disturbance origin regeneration, can be ascertained.

1. Introduction

Bottomland hardwood forests are an important component of regional hydrology and provide important wetland habitat and recreational opportunities. Widespread loss of these forests due to agriculture has led to efforts to restore canopy cover and maintain key wetland species adapted to floodplain conditions in support of wildlife habitat, water quality, and biodiversity [1]. Soil and nutrient deposition due to periodic flooding make bottomland hardwood forests highly productive sites [2]. Species composition, including the successful persistence of key wetland tree species, is dependent on flood duration and canopy openness [3,4]. Landscape, hydrological, and geomorphic changes, such as levees, agricultural practices, and landscape fragmentation, as well as shifting management objectives, including a focus on hands-off management, have led to drier conditions and later-successional compositions that favor less flood-tolerant and more shade-tolerant species [1,5,6,7]. This species shift has potential impacts on forest response to catastrophic disturbance events and management activities.
Forest structure and compositional responses to extreme wind events, such as tornadoes, depend on the severity of the disturbance, historical disturbance regime, and past land use. Extreme wind events provide opportunities for early successional species to establish alongside released advanced regeneration and resprouting damaged trees, diversifying previously closed-canopy forests [8,9]. Pit and mound structures created by windthrow add to microsite diversity and support a wider variety of species in the regeneration [10,11]. These diverse, early successional stands alongside adjacent undisturbed forest contribute to landscape-level biodiversity.
Bottomland hardwood forests can recover quickly from severe wind disturbances [2,12]. Salvage logging operations, a commonly employed management response after the initial disturbance event, is of particular interest to researchers and land managers because it may have long-term consequences for forest recovery. Salvage logging has the potential to further open the canopy and disturb the forest floor, providing more opportunities for early successional species to regenerate from seed, potentially increasing diversity in the recovering forest [13,14,15]. Studies using standard clearcutting in intact bottomland hardwood stands indicate that impacts on soil structure and hydrology due to the use of logging equipment are often temporary and typically have no long-term consequences for site productivity, regeneration composition, or forest cover development [16]. However, salvage logging may facilitate spread of non-native invasive species, and the long-term impacts of salvage logging combined with wind disturbance in a mixed-temperate forested wetland is not well studied.
The bottomland hardwood forest surveyed for this study was historically a bald cypress (Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich) swamp that was drained and cleared for agriculture around the turn of the twentieth century and subsequently acquired by the state of Illinois in 1949, when it was allowed to return to forest [17]. The secondary forest was then managed for recreational and ecological purposes through the 1980-90s [17]. In 2003, a severe tornado impacted 162 ha of forest, and a partial salvage harvest was conducted to reopen the area for hunter access [17]. In the following three years, a survey of stand regeneration was conducted, focusing on seedling recruitment [17]. Tree species rapidly regenerated under conditions of increased nutrient availability due to complete crown removal, and the dissimilarities in density and diversity of seedling recruitment between logged and unlogged areas were apparent following three years of recovery [17]. At that time, potentially long-lasting differences in productivity due to soil disturbance between disturbed and intact forests were also apparent. Limited existing research has shown varying results on the long-term impact of wind damage and salvage logging, depending on the conditions at the time of the disturbance and the severity of the disturbance [15,18,19,20,21].
The objective of the present study was to assess forest structure, composition, and productivity twenty years after wind disturbance, with or without subsequent salvage logging. We were particularly concerned with differences in density and basal area in disturbed and undisturbed areas for the following critical species: Liriodendron tulipifera L., Fraxinus pennsylvanica. Marsh., Quercus spp., and Key Wetland Species (Nyssa aquatica L., Salix, spp. and T. distichum). We hypothesized that species composition and structure will differ among sites that were disturbed and not disturbed, both by the tornado and the following salvage logging operation. We also hypothesized that sites that were salvage logged following the tornado will be less productive compared to sites that were not.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The study area was located within the 1060 ha Mermet Lake State Fish and Wildlife Area in Massac County, Illinois (37°15′25″ N, 88°50′30″ W), on the historic floodplain of the Ohio River, within the Mississippi Embayment. Most of the conservation area has flat topography with a slope of less than 2%. Soils primarily included Cape, Karnak, and Ginat series [22]. The Cape series consists of poorly to very poorly drained silty clay loam and is classified as fine, smectitic, acid, mesic Vertic Endoaquepts [22]. The Ginat series consists of poorly drained silt loam and is taxonomically classified as fine-silty, mixed, active, mesic Typic Endoaqualfs [22]. The Karnak series consists of poorly to very poorly drained silty clay and is classified as fine, smectitic, nonacid, mesic Vertic Endoaquepts [22]. The bald cypress swamp at Mermet Lake was drained and converted to agriculture in the early 1900s, after which fire frequency increased, likely due to brush burning used to maintain land improvement [23]. In 1949, the State of Illinois gained ownership and began reforestation to manage Mermet Lake as a wildlife area. A partial hydrologic restoration through the construction of several levees during the early 1960s allows for the controlled flooding during the waterfowl hunting season from November through January. Currently, the Illinois Department of Natural Resources manages the area for wildlife habitat and recreational use, primarily waterfowl hunting.
On 6 May 2003, an F4 tornado (wind speeds ranging from 333–418 km/h) damaged 162 ha of forested land in the conservation area [17]. At the time of the tornado, the study area encompassed a 60+ year-old closed-canopy bottomland hardwood forest. Quercus palustris Muenchh and Quercus phellos L. dominated the canopy along with other hardwood species, including L. tulipifera, F. pennsylvanica, Carya spp., Liquidambar styraciflua L., Nyssa spp., and Ulmus spp. [17]. The understory and mid-story strata were dominated by shade-tolerant, fire-intolerant species, including Acer rubrum L., Acer saccharum Marsh, L. tulipifera, Ulmus rubra Muhl., and Ulmus americana L. [17]. A partial salvage harvest was conducted between October 2003 and April 2004 on approximately 32 ha of the damaged area, leaving areas unsalvaged for the purpose of conducting a post-disturbance survey [17]. Salvage occurred in the most severely wind-impacted area that experienced complete tree crown removal, which mostly occurred by main stem breakage at least three meters above the ground, as well as by blowdown [17]. Loggers employed rubber-tired and tracked grapple skidders to remove wind-damaged and downed stems [17]. Stem breakage tended to twist and shatter the trees; therefore, the logging operation primarily harvested toppled trees, and approximately 4800 board feet/ha of saw logs were removed [17]. To prevent disruption of the federally endangered Indiana Bat (Myotis sodalis Miller & Allen, 1928), salvage activity was terminated in November 2003 and ~30 snags ha−1, with one snag ha−1 greater than 36 centimeters (cm) diameter at breast height, were retained [17]. Salvage activity was limited in spring 2004 to areas not inundated and guided by the intent to permit hunter access and recover merchantable materials. [17]. Slash was left in place except where skid trails were cleared or stabilized [17]. Some skid trails were graded and seeded to stabilize the surface with an herbaceous seed mix, including Dactylis glomerata L., Pheleum pratense L., and Trifolium spp., following the operation [17].

2.2. Sampling

One hundred sixty-four sampling plots were used to inventory forest structure and composition between May and July of 2023 (Figure 1). Each 0.04 ha fixed-radius plot was located on a 50 m Universal Transverse Mercator grid. Each plot was assigned a disturbance class [17] categorized as follows, with the number of sampling plots given in parentheses: 1. Undisturbed—areas that were free of structural damage (21); 2. Transition—areas located at the edge of the tornado swath and experienced only partial canopy removal (7); 3. Wind—areas that experienced nearly complete canopy removal (63); 4. Salvaged—areas that experienced nearly complete canopy removal and were subsequently salvage logged (73).
In each 0.04 ha plot, the species and diameter at breast height (DBH) were recorded for overstory trees and all woody stems > 7.6 cm DBH (1.37 m, DBH). The tree height of each plot’s largest-DBH damaged and undamaged tree were measured. Tree height was measured as a proxy for productivity to determine if there was any difference among disturbance types. Tree height was measured with a hypsometer. Non-native invasive species listed by the USDA National Invasive Species Information Center and defined in this study as exotic species recognized to have or potentially have negative impacts on the ecosystem, such as crowding out native species, were identified and estimated visually using a modified Daubenmire scale (1 = Few; 2 = Few−1%; 3 = 1–2%; 4 = 2–5%; 5 = 5–10%; 6 = 10–25%; 7 = 25–50%; 8 = 50–75%; 9 = 75–95%; 10 = 95–100%) [24,25]. Evidence of soil disturbance within each 0.04 ha Salvaged plot was classified into one of three visual categories (0 = undisturbed by traffic; 1 = soil rutted at a depth < 20 cm; 2 = soil rutted at a depth > 20 cm [17]).

2.3. Statistical Analysis

The data collected from each plot were used to determine overstory species density, basal area, and non-native invasive species cover. Shannon’s H Index was used to determine species diversity [26]. Welch’s one-way analysis of variance and two-sample t-tests were used to examine differences in total overstory density, basal area, diversity, and undamaged tree height between disturbance categories. Kruskal–Wallis and post-hoc tests using the Dunn–Bonferroni method were used to analyze individual species basal area, density, and invasive species cover [27,28]. All statistical analyses were performed using R 4.3.1, using packages ‘ggplot2’, ‘dplyr’, ‘FSA’, and ‘dunn.test’.

3. Results

3.1. Overstory Species Diversity and Composition

Salvaged had greater diversity compared to Wind and Undamaged (p < 0.02) but did not differ from Transition. There were no significant diversity differences between any other disturbance classes. Total overstory density differed significantly among the disturbance types (p < 0.05, Table 1). Salvaged had the highest total density, while Wind density was greater than Undamaged, but not Transition (p < 0.05, Table 1). Fraxinus pennsylvancia and L. tulipifera density was significantly greater in Salvage and Wind compared to Undamaged and Transition (p < 0.01), while Quercus spp. density was lower in these areas (p < 0.006). Key Wetland Species density was greatest in Salvaged compared to all other disturbance classes (p < 0.01). Similar trends were observed for basal area, with the exception of lower basal area in Salvaged compared to Wind and Transition (p < 0.05, Table 2).

3.2. Invasive Species

The mean total cover of invasive species differed significantly (p < 0.001) among disturbance classifications (Table 3). Total invasive cover in Salvaged was significantly higher than in Transition (p < 0.01) and Undisturbed (p < 0.001). It was also significantly higher in Wind than in Undamaged (p < 0.05). However, invasive cover did not differ significantly between Salvaged and Wind nor between Transition and Wind or Undisturbed. Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) had the highest cover in all disturbance classifications, with an average cover of 9% in Salvaged and 14% in Wind, but less than 1% in Transition and Undisturbed. There were no further significant differences detected for any other invasive species (Table 3).

3.3. Soil Disturbance and Productivity

There was still visual evidence of soil rutting in 61% of Salvaged plots 20 years after the salvage logging operation. Regarding rutting depth, 38% of plots had evidence of soil ruts less than 20 cm, and 23% had evidence of soil ruts greater than 20 cm. Mean tree height of the largest individuals with no evidence of stem breakage did not differ (t(132) = 1.42, p = 0.16) between Salvaged ( x ¯ = 23.7, SE = 0.62) and Wind ( x ¯ = 22.6, SE = 0.54).

4. Discussion

Overstory tree density was significantly higher in Salvaged and Wind areas than in Undisturbed locations. However, the basal area in Salvaged, Wind, and Transition had already converged with that of Undisturbed through a combination of post-disturbance origin and canopy-recovered pre-disturbance trees [18,29]. While the basal area in Wind and Salvaged did not differ significantly from that of Undisturbed, Wind did have significantly higher basal area than Salvaged. The 2004 salvage logging operation removed standing damaged trees if the boles had not been shattered, which may have led to fewer remaining large legacy trees that had the potential to contribute to the basal area twenty years later. However, regardless of logging treatment, all regenerating stands had recovered basal areas comparable to nearby Undisturbed stands and had returned to closed-canopy conditions.
Crown-recovered damaged boles, new growth from released advance regeneration, and post-disturbance-origin individuals all contributed to the canopy at the time of the study. Rapid increases in regeneration stem density following a wind disturbance are due to increased resource availability from canopy gaps and soil disturbance [17,23,30,31], which was further intensified by salvage logging operations [18]. Many of the crown-recovered trees damaged by the tornado had hollow boles at the time of the study and have been subject to post-disturbance branch failure and stem decay. These legacy stems, therefore, contribute to the provision of key habitat elements, including stem cavities and coarse woody debris that are important for wildlife species [32,33].
While the regenerated stand structure appeared to converge with nearby undisturbed areas, the salvage logging operation had potentially long-lasting benefits for forest community composition. Salvaged areas had significantly higher tree species diversity than any other disturbance type. Other long-term studies have also found that soil disturbance caused by salvage logging increases microsite and vegetation diversity [15,16]. This, alongside increased light from further canopy openings and debris removal, creates opportunities for a more diverse suite of species to regenerate, resulting in higher diversity in areas that have been salvaged than those that have not [8,30,34]. During the first three years of post-disturbance recovery on this site, Salix spp. originated exclusively on skid trails from the salvage operation (17), which simulated soil conditions associated with accretional floodplains and increased light availability, encouraging its germination [2,13,35]. The current survey showed that 20 years after the tornado, Salix spp. occurred primarily in Salvaged areas. The logging disturbance also increased the proportion of other Key Wetland species, T. distichum and N. aquatica. These are the first known instances of regeneration of these species since the agricultural drainage and partial hydrologic restoration at Mermet Lake, emphasizing the value of disturbances to meet conservation objectives.
The salvage logging operations provided additional opportunities for early successional species, such as L. tulipifera and F. pennsylvanica, to establish, further diversifying the canopy. The increasing prominence of these species has been noted following canopy disturbances across a wide range of conditions within the region [36,37,38]. Although other studies have reported that the potential for Quercus regeneration improves when competing vegetation is removed by a disturbance [4,35], our study found mixed results. There was a loss of Quercus dominance in the overstory of Salvaged and Wind areas. This follows a regional trend of declining oak abundance [39,40]. Additionally, we observed the majority of smaller Quercus stems were overtopped by less desirable species such as F. pennsylvanica, L. styraciflua, Ulmus spp., and Acer spp. in Salvaged and Wind areas. All plots with overtopped midstory T. distichum and N. aquatica were located in Salvaged areas. Like Quercus, these overtopped species may require active management to remove the surrounding competition if they are to persist in the regenerated stands and support the conservation area’s bottomland restoration objectives. Alternatively, Quercus might be expected to become increasingly dominant over time, given its midstory presence [41].
Although a high proportion of F. pennsylvanica persists in all strata, evidence of Emerald Ash Borer was prevalent, making the future of these trees uncertain. While F. pennsylvanica accounted for the greatest relative proportion of overstory stem densities in Salvaged and Wind plots, it accounted for a lower proportion of basal area than other dominant species such as Acer spp., Ulmus spp., and L. styraciflua. Therefore, it is likely that the increased relative density of F. pennsylvanica in the regenerated stands will persist. Considering its current high density, F. pennsylvanica dieback due to Emerald Ash Borer, which causes near-complete mortality, has the potential to create more gaps and novel regeneration in the future [19,42,43]. Since mortality from Emerald Ash Borer is not immediate, and standing dead trees may remain in the canopy, it is likely that the loss of F. pennsylvanica will favor more intermediate and shade-tolerant species present in the understory.
The tornado introduced or spread non-native invasive species, while the salvage logging operation had little additional impact. Microstegium vimineum, the most common species in our study, has been observed to slow the rate of forest succession and alter tree species composition in bottomland forests [44]. However, this did not appear to be the case in our study. Presently, the opportunity for non-native invasive species to establish and spread is still limited post-disturbance because of the increased competition and diversity of existing native vegetation species, which have quickly closed canopy gaps [45]. Increased frequency or severity of disturbances may decrease a community’s resilience against invasives; however, there was no significant difference in total invasive cover between Wind and Salvaged areas despite the additional disturbance of the logging operations. In this case, regeneration in both Wind and Salvaged areas was rapid and diverse enough to shade out the spread of non-natives, which remained primarily along forest edges near current or associated with former roads, skid trails, and railway beds. While non-native invasive species remain concentrated along edges, management strategies should be considered to control their populations before additional disturbances facilitate their spread.
A short-term post-disturbance recovery study at this site (17) revealed a reduction in visual evidence of soil rutting over the first three years post disturbance, which appeared to continue until the time of the current study, when only the most severe soil ruts, such as those from skid trails, remained twenty years post disturbance. Although salvage logging has the potential to impact forest productivity [4,35], the lack of significant difference in undamaged tree height between Salvaged and Wind areas indicates that such an impact did not apply to the current study. These results are consistent with those in other bottomland sites where soil amelioration is rapid and logging has been shown to have little impact on productivity [16] and forest regeneration [29,35,46].

5. Conclusions

Tree species dominance patterns shifted twenty years following an extreme windthrow event, with and without salvage logging, compared to undisturbed reference forest. While extrapolating the findings of a small case study should be done cautiously, our study suggests that salvage logging had unexpected and persistent benefits for tree species diversity through the establishment of L. tulipifera and increased representation of key wetland species Salix spp., T. distichum, and N. aquatica. This study has implications for considering the importance of wind disturbance in shaping canopy structure in bottomland hardwood forests. Future research on this topic should consider both post-disturbance regenerations along with detailing the extent of wind damage and tracking the potential contributions of even the most severely damaged individuals originating prior to a disturbance. Regarding our study site, further research is warranted regarding continued stand development, including competition dynamics among damaged and undamaged trees, as well as implications for ecosystem services provided by persisting legacies across wind and salvage disturbance classifications.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, L.A.S., E.J.H., J.W.G. and C.M.R.; Formal analysis, L.A.S., E.J.H. and J.W.G.; Funding acquisition, E.J.H.; Investigation, L.A.S.; Methodology, L.A.S., E.J.H., J.W.G. and C.M.R.; Resources, E.J.H., J.W.G. and J.L.N.; Supervision, E.J.H.; Validation, E.J.H. and J.W.G.; Visualization, L.A.S.; Writing—original draft, L.A.S.; Writing—review & editing, L.A.S., E.J.H., J.W.G., C.M.R. and J.L.N. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the USDA Forest Service McIntire Stennis Program and Southern Illinois University School of Forestry and Horticulture.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge Dakota Dravo and Thanchira Suriyamongkol for their assistance with the collection of field data, as well as the staff and crew at Mermet Lake State Fish and Wildlife Area for remaining invested in the results of this research and allowing data collection.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Ecologies 06 00027 g001
Figure 1. Spatial distribution of disturbance types and location of plots within the 1060 ha study site at Mermet Lake State Fish and Wildlife Area in Massac County, Illinois, USA.
Figure 1. Spatial distribution of disturbance types and location of plots within the 1060 ha study site at Mermet Lake State Fish and Wildlife Area in Massac County, Illinois, USA.
Ecologies 06 00027 g001
Table 1. Mean (standard error in parentheses) overstory density for each of the four disturbance types (Salvage, Wind, Transition, and Undamaged) twenty years following a severe tornado in southern Illinois, USA. Letters indicate statistically significant differences at least < 0.05 among the four disturbance types.
Table 1. Mean (standard error in parentheses) overstory density for each of the four disturbance types (Salvage, Wind, Transition, and Undamaged) twenty years following a severe tornado in southern Illinois, USA. Letters indicate statistically significant differences at least < 0.05 among the four disturbance types.
SalvagedWindTransitionUndamaged
Acer spp.152 (26)137 (20)161 (74)70 (29)
Asimina triloba10 (7)0 (0)0 (0)0 (0)
Carya spp.60 (13)39 (10)50 (27)109 (34)
Cercis canadensis1 (1)0 (2)0 (0)0 (0)
Celtis occidentalis35 (8) a35 (5) a0 (0) b2 (2) b
Diospyros virginiana0 (0)2 (1)0 (0)2 (2)
Fraxinus pennsylvanica261 (26) a239 (32) a18 (11) b30 (9) b
Gleditsia triacanthos2 (1)1 (1)0 (0)0 (0)
Juglans nigra0 (0)1 (1)0 (0)0 (0)
Liquidambar sturaciflua126 (20)124 (29)111 (37)85 (32)
Liriodendron tulipifera78 (23) a11 (3) ab0 (0) b0 (0) b
Morus alba13 (4) a2 (1) ab0 (0) b1 (1) b
Nyssa aquatica9 (3) a1 (1) b0 (0) b0 (0) b
Nyssa sylvatica6 (3)8 (3)7 (7)0 (0)
Ostrya virginiana0 (0)0 (0)0 (0)1 (1)
Platanus occidentalis5 (1) a2 (1) ab0 (0) b0 (0) b
Populus deltoides1 (1)1 (1)0 (0)0 (0)
Prunus serotina7 (2) a2 (1) ab0 (0) b0 (0) b
Quercus spp.63 (10) b48 (9) b143 (16) a138 (21) a
Sassafras albidum7 (3) 4 (3)0 (0)0 (0)
Salix spp. 57 (14) a3 (2) b0 (0) b0 (0) b
Taxodium distichum11 (4)1 (1)0 (0)0 (0)
Ulmus spp.97 (13) b179 (20) a200 (111) a112 (20) a
Total1002 (34) a840 (36) b689 (90) bc551 (33) c
Table 2. Mean (standard error in parentheses) overstory basal area for each of the four disturbance types (Salvage, Wind, Transition, and Undamaged) twenty years following a severe tornado in southern Illinois, USA. Letters indicate statistically significant differences at least < 0.05 among the four disturbance types.
Table 2. Mean (standard error in parentheses) overstory basal area for each of the four disturbance types (Salvage, Wind, Transition, and Undamaged) twenty years following a severe tornado in southern Illinois, USA. Letters indicate statistically significant differences at least < 0.05 among the four disturbance types.
SalvagedWindTransitionUndamaged
Acer spp.4.7 (0.8)7.7 (0.8)3.6 (2.3)2.4 (1.1)
Asimina triloba0.1 (0.1)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)
Carya spp.1.4 (0.3)1.0 (0.3)1.0 (0.6)2.9 (1.0)
Cercis canadensis<0.1 (<0.1)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)
Celtis occidentalis0.9 (0.2) a1.0 (0.2) a0.0 (0.0) b<0.1 (<0.1) b
Diospyros virginiana0.0 (0.0)0.1 (0.1)0.0 (0.0)<0.1 (<0.1)
Fraxinus pennsylvanica4.8 (0.6) a6.0 (0.8) a0.2 (0.1) b4.8 (0.6) b
Gleditsia triacanthos<0.1 (<0.1)<0.1 (<0.1)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)
Juglans nigra0.0 (0.0)0.1 (0.1)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)
Liquidambar sturaciflua4.4 (0.7)5.8 (1.1)4.8 (1.3)4.4 (2.0)
Liriodendron tulipifera2.7 (1.5) a0.3 (0.3) b0.0 (0.0) b0.0 (0.0) b
Morus alba0.2 (0.1) a<0.1 (<0.1) ab0.0 (0.0) b0.0 (0.0) b
Nyssa aquatica0.3 (0.1) a0.1 (0.1)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)
Nyssa sylvatica0.1 (0.1)0.3 (0.2)0.1 (0.1)0.0 (0.0)
Ostrya virginiana<0.1 (<0.1)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)
Platanus occidentalis0.3 (0.2) a0.4 (0.4) a0.0 (0.0) b0.0 (0.0) b
Populus deltoides0.1 (0.1)0.1 (0.1)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)
Prunus serotina0.2 (0.1) a0.1 (0.1) ab0.0 (0.0) a0.0 (0.0) a
Quercus spp.2.8 (0.5) b5.1 (1.0) b23.2 (4.0) a17.4 (2.5) a
Sassafras albidum0.1 (<0.1) 0.1 (<0.1) 0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)
Salix spp.2.0 (0.5)a0.2 (0.1) b0.0 (0.0) b0.0 (0.0) b
Taxodium distichum0.3 (0.1)0.3 (0.3)0.0 (0.0)0.0 (0.0)
Ulmus spp.3.0 (0.4) b6.1 (1.0) a3.5 (1.8) ab2.6 (0.5) b
Total28.1 (0.9) b34.8 (1.1) a36.2 (3.3) a30.0 (2.6) ab
Table 3. Percent cover of the five non-native invasive species encountered and total percent cover of non-native species for each of the four disturbance types (Salvage, Wind, Transition, and Undamaged) twenty years following a severe tornado in southern Illinois, USA. Letters indicate statistically significant differences at least < 0.05 among the four disturbance types.
Table 3. Percent cover of the five non-native invasive species encountered and total percent cover of non-native species for each of the four disturbance types (Salvage, Wind, Transition, and Undamaged) twenty years following a severe tornado in southern Illinois, USA. Letters indicate statistically significant differences at least < 0.05 among the four disturbance types.
Salvaged Wind Transition Undisturbed
Microstegium vimineum9 a14 a<1 b<1 b
Rosa multiflora<1<1<1<1
Lonicera maackii530<1
Lonicera japonica31<1<1
Elaeagnus umbellata<1000
Total17 a18 a<1 b2 b
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Schammel, L.A.; Holzmueller, E.J.; Groninger, J.W.; Ruffner, C.M.; Nelson, J.L. Recovering of Biodiversity in Bottomland Hardwood Forests After a Tornado and Salvage Logging in Southern Illinois (USA). Ecologies 2025, 6, 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/ecologies6020027

AMA Style

Schammel LA, Holzmueller EJ, Groninger JW, Ruffner CM, Nelson JL. Recovering of Biodiversity in Bottomland Hardwood Forests After a Tornado and Salvage Logging in Southern Illinois (USA). Ecologies. 2025; 6(2):27. https://doi.org/10.3390/ecologies6020027

Chicago/Turabian Style

Schammel, Laura A., Eric J. Holzmueller, John W. Groninger, Charles M. Ruffner, and John L. Nelson. 2025. "Recovering of Biodiversity in Bottomland Hardwood Forests After a Tornado and Salvage Logging in Southern Illinois (USA)" Ecologies 6, no. 2: 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/ecologies6020027

APA Style

Schammel, L. A., Holzmueller, E. J., Groninger, J. W., Ruffner, C. M., & Nelson, J. L. (2025). Recovering of Biodiversity in Bottomland Hardwood Forests After a Tornado and Salvage Logging in Southern Illinois (USA). Ecologies, 6(2), 27. https://doi.org/10.3390/ecologies6020027

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