Public Perceptions and Social Acceptance of Renewable Energy Projects in Epirus, Greece: The Role of Education, Demographics and Visual Exposure

Abstract

The social acceptance of Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) is a decisive factor in the successful implementation of clean energy projects. This study explores the attitudes, demographic profiles, and common misconceptions of citizens in the Region of Epirus, Greece, toward photovoltaic and wind energy installations. Special attention is given to the role of education, age, and access to information—as well as spatial factors such as visual exposure—in shaping public perceptions and influencing acceptance of RES deployment. A structured questionnaire was administered to 320 participants across urban and rural areas, with subdivision between regions with and without visual exposure to RES infrastructure. Findings indicate that urban residents exhibit greater acceptance of RES, while rural inhabitants—especially those in proximity to installations—express skepticism, often grounded in esthetic concerns or perceived procedural injustice. Misinformation and lack of knowledge dominate in areas without visual contact. Statistical analysis confirms that younger and more educated participants are more supportive and environmentally aware. The study highlights the importance of targeted educational interventions, transparent consultation, and spatially sensitive communication strategies in fostering constructive engagement with renewable energy projects. The case of Epirus underscores the need for inclusive, place-based policies to bridge the social acceptance gap and support the national energy transition.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background and Rationale

The global shift toward Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) is not only a technological and environmental imperative but also a fundamentally social process. Amid escalating climate change impacts, energy insecurity, and dependence on fossil fuels, national and international policies have set ambitious goals for decarbonization. However, the implementation of renewable energy projects—especially those involving wind farms and photovoltaic parks—is increasingly confronted with societal resistance, particularly at the local level [1].

While the technological readiness and economic feasibility of RESs have been demonstrated in a wide range of contexts—including off-grid and island settings [2,3,4]—their deployment frequently faces obstacles linked to public attitudes, values, and perceptions. This phenomenon is particularly evident in regions with strong cultural identities, deep attachment to natural landscapes, or limited prior exposure to energy infrastructure [5]. The Region of Epirus, a mountainous and sparsely populated area in northwestern Greece, presents a highly relevant case for examining these dynamics.

Although a substantial body of research has investigated public perceptions of renewable energy, especially in relation to the NIMBY phenomenon and socio-demographic variables, this study offers three key contributions. First, it provides spatially disaggregated empirical evidence from a lesser-studied Greek periphery—Epirus—where both geographic remoteness and environmental sensitivity amplify local responses to RES siting. Second, it introduces a visual exposure framework that distinguishes rural respondents based on whether they have direct visual contact with RES installations—an element often overlooked in national-level studies. Third, the research explores the interplay between educational attainment, misinformation, and institutional trust, drawing links between environmental literacy and acceptance outcomes.

This approach allows the study to identify concrete informational asymmetries and trust deficits that shape attitudes in different local contexts. By focusing on a region marked by strong landscape attachment, procedural skepticism, and uneven access to environmental education, the research advances our understanding of place-based determinants of social acceptance and offers transferable insights for similarly structured regions undergoing energy transition.

Comparative studies across Europe show that local attitudes toward wind and solar energy are shaped not only by environmental awareness, but by fairness perceptions and spatial identity [6,7]. These dynamics have been observed in both Northern and Southern Europe, reinforcing the need for context-sensitive approaches to RES deployment.

Comparable challenges of public opposition have been documented across various national contexts. In Spain, especially in Galicia, resistance to wind energy projects has intensified due to perceived landscape degradation and lack of community benefits [8]. Outside Europe, Brazil offers similar insights: wind power expansion in the northeastern region has provoked strong local reactions related to land use conflicts and social exclusion, highlighting the need for participatory and equitable energy planning [9]. These cases reinforce the notion that social acceptance is a multidimensional issue with both global relevance and local specificity.

This study is grounded in a multidimensional theoretical framework that integrates key concepts from the literature on public acceptance of energy infrastructure. Drawing on [10], we adopt a tripartite view of social acceptance that includes socio-political, community, and market dimensions. The notion of NIMBYism is acknowledged as a partial explanation for local resistance but is supplemented by more nuanced perspectives emphasizing emotional, cognitive, and identity-based factors. Central to our framework is the concept of procedural justice, which refers to the fairness and transparency of decision-making processes and has been shown to strongly influence acceptance levels. We also consider trust in institutions and information credibility as critical mediators of risk perception and public support. This framework informs our research design and guides the interpretation of empirical results throughout the study.

1.2. Theoretical Framework of Social Acceptance

Social acceptance of RES involves three interconnected dimensions: socio-political acceptance, market acceptance, and community acceptance [10]. Socio-political acceptance refers to the general support of policies, regulations, and planning instruments [11]. Market acceptance reflects consumer behavior and investor confidence [12]. However, community acceptance is often the most volatile, as it relates to how local residents perceive specific energy projects that directly affect their environment [13].

As shown in the international literature, the local dimension of acceptance is highly sensitive to issues of fairness, transparency, landscape disruption, and trust [14]. When residents feel excluded from decision making or perceive that the benefits of a project accrue elsewhere, opposition becomes more likely—even if they support renewable energy in principle [15].

In the Greek context, these dynamics are especially pronounced due to historical patterns of centralized governance, limited participatory planning, and uneven regional development [16]. Although public discourse generally favors renewable energy, the emergence of local movements against wind and solar farms—often invoking environmental, esthetic, and procedural concerns—reveals a persistent gap between policy intent and social reality [17,18].

1.3. The NIMBY Effect and Its Interpretations

One of the most widely cited explanations for community resistance is the NIMBY (Not in My Backyard) phenomenon. This framework suggests that individuals or communities may support RES development in general, but oppose its implementation near their homes or valued landscapes [19]. The NIMBY concept is examined not as a monolithic explanation but as the result of a complex interplay of emotions, spatial identity, risk perception, and socio-economic factors [20].

The international literature [21,22] suggests that NIMBYism is frequently mischaracterized as irrational or self-interested, whereas it often reflects valid concerns about landscape degradation, procedural injustice, and top-down decision making. For Epirus, where landscape and cultural heritage are deeply embedded in local identity, such resistance cannot be dismissed as mere obstructionism [23].

Survey results indicated that respondents residing in rural areas with direct visual exposure to RES infrastructure expressed significantly more negative attitudes compared to those without such exposure. These attitudes encompassed not only esthetic objections but also socio-political concerns, including perceived marginalization, lack of public consultation, and skepticism regarding the distribution of benefits from RES investments [24].

1.4. The Role of Education and Information

A key hypothesis emerging from the literature is the catalytic role of education and public information in shaping perceptions and enhancing the social acceptance of renewable energy systems (RES). Prior research has shown that increased environmental awareness and educational engagement are positively correlated with public support for RES initiatives [25,26].

Empirical findings indicated that participants with higher levels of education and prior exposure to environmental topics tended to express more favorable attitudes toward renewable energy projects. These individuals exhibited a clearer understanding of climate change, a more nuanced evaluation of trade-offs, and greater openness to participatory planning processes. In contrast, respondents with limited access to information or prevalent misconceptions were more likely to express skepticism or opposition, often grounded in inaccurate or incomplete understandings of RES impacts [27,28,29].

These findings underscore a notable information gap concerning renewable energy in the Region of Epirus. A substantial proportion of residents reported limited access to reliable, scientifically grounded information, while official communication channels and public consultation processes were perceived as inadequate or absent. Consequently, public perceptions were often shaped by fragmented knowledge or non-validated sources, including social media and informal networks. The absence of structured outreach and environmental education appears to contribute to skepticism, misperceptions, and resistance toward RES developments—especially in rural areas with direct visual or spatial proximity to energy infrastructure [30].

1.5. Trust, Transparency, and Procedural Fairness

Institutional trust and perceptions of procedural fairness are critical factors influencing public responses to renewable energy projects. Research shows that when local communities are excluded from planning processes, or when decision-making appears opaque or predetermined, public opposition tends to intensify—even in cases where the environmental or economic rationale is well-founded [31,32,33,34].

Residents have expressed significant concerns about the transparency and inclusiveness of renewable energy planning processes. They questioned the fairness of land allocation, the equitable distribution of benefits, and the credibility of Environmental Impact Assessments. Consultation opportunities were reported to be limited, with insufficient interaction between citizens, project developers, and authorities in rural municipalities. These concerns emphasize that early-stage engagement, participatory decision-making and trust-building communication are essential for establishing legitimacy and public support of RES initiatives [35].

1.6. Objectives of the Present Study

This study addresses a critical knowledge gap regarding the place-based determinants of social acceptance of renewable energy projects in peripheral regions of Greece. It aims to investigate why strong abstract support for RES does not necessarily translate into local acceptance and how misinformation, education level, institutional trust, and visual exposure shape public attitudes.

This research seeks the following:

• Understand the underlying causes of spatial variation in acceptance of RES, particularly between urban and rural areas in Epirus;
• Examine how demographic variables such as education and age affect susceptibility to misinformation and support for RES projects;
• Explore the role of institutional trust and perceived procedural fairness in shaping public reactions to local RES siting;
• Assess the extent to which visual exposure to RES infrastructure influences acceptance or resistance;
• Generate actionable insights for designing inclusive communication, planning, and educational strategies that enhance community engagement and social legitimacy.

This contribution is particularly relevant in the context of current policy frameworks such as the National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) and the European Green Deal, which emphasize accelerated RES deployment but often underrepresent the role of local perceptions, procedural fairness, and place-based educational needs in achieving socially sustainable energy transitions.

1.7. Structure of the Paper

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows:

• Section 2 outlines the methodology used, including sample design, data collection instruments, and statistical tools.
• Section 3 presents the main findings from the field survey, highlighting patterns of acceptance and resistance.
• Section 4 discusses these results in the light of the existing literature and provides analytical interpretation.
• Section 5 concludes with practical recommendations for policy and future research directions.

2. Methodology

2.1. Research Design and Approach

This study employs a quantitative research approach using a structured questionnaire to investigate public perceptions, misconceptions, and acceptance of Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) in the Region of Epirus, Greece. The design allows for statistical generalization and comparative analysis across distinct population groups and geographic zones [36]. The questionnaire was carefully designed to align with the theoretical framework and research objectives, ensuring relevance to the core themes of social acceptance, educational influence, and local engagement.

To ensure multidimensional insight, the methodology incorporates both socio-demographic variables and spatial factors, particularly the visual exposure to RES infrastructure in rural areas.

2.2. Study Area and Sampling Strategy

The research was conducted in the Region of Epirus, covering all four Regional Units (Ioannina, Arta, Thesprotia, and Preveza—Figure 1). A stratified random sampling strategy was employed to ensure representativeness in terms of regional distribution, urban–rural split, and visual proximity to RES installations [37].

The final sample consisted of 320 participants, equivalent to approximately 1/1000 of the regional population based on the 2021 census (319,991 inhabitants). The sample was proportionally allocated as follows: 160 from Ioannina, 64 from Arta, 41 from Thesprotia, and 55 from Preveza. Within each Regional Unit, further subdivision was made into urban residents, rural residents with visual exposure to RES, and rural residents without such exposure, based on the field of knowledge and local consultation. In addition to its administrative structure, the Region of Epirus possesses several territorial and cultural characteristics that are highly relevant for understanding local responses to RES development:

The Region of Epirus offers a representative but complex case for exploring the socio-cultural dimensions of renewable energy acceptance. It is a territory marked by mountainous terrain, high biodiversity, low urbanization, and strong symbolic attachment to the natural landscape. Many of its rural communities maintain traditional land use practices and have historically had limited interaction with large-scale infrastructure projects.

Multiple layers of resistance to renewable energy projects can be observed, extending beyond concerns about landscape preservation. These include perceptions of regional inequality, insufficient mechanisms for benefit-sharing, and a limited tradition of participatory governance. Areas where wind farms are prominently sited—such as on ridgelines—or photovoltaic installations are placed near agricultural zones frequently encounter reduced levels of public acceptance, largely due to their visual prominence and proximity to daily life. For example, quantitative studies have demonstrated significantly lower support for wind turbines located within a few hundred meters of residences, particularly when these turbines affect scenic landscapes or agricultural settings [34]. This resistance appears to intensify when local residents perceive an absence of meaningful involvement in site selection or in the distribution of economic benefits.

Survey results indicate that attitudes toward renewable energy projects vary notably by locality. Respondents in urban centers such as Ioannina generally exhibited more favorable views and reported greater familiarity with renewable technologies. In contrast, rural participants expressed higher levels of skepticism, emotional concern, and distrust toward institutional actors. This spatial divergence underscores the need for communication and engagement strategies that are context-sensitive, addressing the specific socio-cultural and informational dynamics of different geographic areas.

2.3. Questionnaire Structure and Data Collection

• The questionnaire consisted of five thematic sections, covering:
• Demographics: Gender, age, education, occupation, and area of residence.
• Perceptions of Climate Change: Attitudes towards the seriousness and human causes of climate change.
• Knowledge and Acceptance of RES: Familiarity with RES technologies, willingness to accept projects nearby, and concerns raised.
• Role of Education and Information: Access to reliable sources, awareness campaigns, and educational needs.
• Barriers and Opportunities: Perceived obstacles to RES development and suggestions for increasing social acceptance.

Most questions were closed-ended using five-point Likert scales [38], multiple-choice formats, and select open-text entries for clarification. This structure facilitated both quantitative assessment and limited qualitative input.

Data were collected through a mixed-mode approach, combining the following:

• Online distribution via structured digital forms, ensuring accessibility and wide reach.
• In-person interviews in selected rural communities, allowing for greater nuance in interpreting respondent concerns, especially regarding local RES projects.
• The questionnaire was administered in Greek, the native language of the participants, to ensure clarity, accessibility, and cultural relevance.

2.4. Analytical Tools and Techniques

Data analysis was conducted using descriptive and inferential statistics, including frequency distributions, cross-tabulations and multivariate techniques (e.g., ANOVA, correlation analysis), to detect significant associations between variables such as education level, age, location and RES attitudes.

The combined use of statistical tools allowed for the identification of key patterns and relationships in public perceptions, particularly across urban and rural contexts and among groups with differing levels of exposure to RES infrastructure.

Based on the study’s conceptual framework and prior literature, the following hypotheses were formulated and tested through the questionnaire data:

H1: 

Higher educational attainment is positively associated with acceptance of RES projects.

H2: 

Older age groups show lower acceptance of wind energy projects compared to younger participants.

H3: 

Residents with direct visual exposure to RES infrastructure express lower acceptance than those without such exposure.

H4: 

Higher trust in scientific and educational institutions is associated with lower susceptibility to RES-related misconceptions.

H5: 

Urban residents demonstrate higher levels of RES acceptance than rural residents.

These hypotheses were examined through descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, and ANOVA, as presented in the Results Section.

3. Main Findings

A total of 320 individuals participated in the study, proportionally distributed across the four Regional Units of Epirus. The sample was balanced in terms of gender, with 52.2% women and 47.8% men. The most represented age group was 30–44 years (38%), followed by 18–29 (24%), 45–59 (23%), and 60+ (15%). Regarding education, 66% held tertiary-level degrees, while 11% had only completed secondary education. This profile suggests a relatively well-educated and age-diverse sample, suitable for capturing a wide range of attitudes toward energy and environmental topics, as depicted in

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of the sample.

Variable	Category	% of Participants
Gender	Male	52.2
	Female	47.8
Age Group	18–30	24.0
	31–45	38.0
	46–59	23.0
	60+	15.0
Education Level	Higher	66.0
	Secondary	11.0
	Other	23.0
Employment Sector	Public	34.0
	Private	40.0
	Unemployed	10.0
	Retired	16.0

.

The majority of respondents (88.1%) acknowledged the reality of climate change, with 79.4% attributing it mainly to human activities. A strong concern was expressed as follows: 72.3% considered climate change a very serious issue, while only 4.2% downplayed its significance. Higher concern levels were positively associated with education level (p < 0.05), suggesting the influence of environmental literacy, as depicted in Figure 2.

Participants reported high familiarity with photovoltaic systems (78.2%), while knowledge of wind farms was somewhat lower (65.4%). General support for RES was very high, with 89.6% of respondents in favor of new PV parks and 74.8% supporting wind energy projects. However, support declined when projects were considered at the local level: only 68.1% approved nearby PV installations and 58.3% supported a wind farm near their residence. This discrepancy highlights a potential NIMBY (Not in My Back Yard) phenomenon despite widespread abstract approval, as depicted in Figure 3.

The analysis also revealed prevalent misconceptions, particularly regarding wind energy. Specifically, 31.2% of respondents feared adverse health effects such as noise or electromagnetic radiation; 43.7% believed RES installations reduce biodiversity; and 52.5% expressed concern about visual impacts on the landscape. In contrast, photovoltaics were less frequently criticized, although 29.4% of participants expressed concern about the loss of agricultural land. These misconceptions were more common among older respondents and those with lower levels of formal education, as depicted in Figure 4.

In terms of information sources, participants expressed moderate trust in public institutions (mean = 2.9/5), while scientific sources and schools received higher ratings (mean = 4.1/5). Only 12.4% of participants expressed trust in the mass media. Importantly, 74.5% of respondents believed that enhanced environmental education could improve social acceptance of RES, and 66% advocated for targeted awareness campaigns, particularly in rural areas, as depicted in Figure 5 and

Table 2. Support for PV and wind farms by proximity.

Measure	Support (%)
Environmental Education	74.5
Information Campaigns	66.0
Financial Incentives	59.2
Consultation	48.3

.

Spatial context and visual exposure played a key role in shaping perceptions. Urban residents exhibited overall higher acceptance of RES projects. In contrast, rural residents with direct visual exposure to RES infrastructure reported greater concern, particularly regarding esthetics and ecological disruption. Rural residents without exposure expressed greater anxiety over unknown or hypothetical risks, such as radiation. Among those with visual exposure, only 41.7% supported nearby wind projects, compared to 66.5% of urban residents, as depicted in

Table 3. Acceptance of RES projects by the exposure group.

Group	PV Acceptance (%)	Wind Acceptance (%)
Urban	75.4	66.5
Rural (visual exposure)	62.3	41.7
Rural (no exposure)	66.7	55.2

. These findings emphasize that local context and experiential familiarity influence attitudes more strongly than abstract ideological support for sustainability.

Statistical analysis confirmed significant relationships among key variables. A strong positive correlation was found between education level and acceptance of RES (r = +0.46, p < 0.01). Conversely, support for wind energy projects declined with increasing age (r = −0.39, p < 0.01). Moreover, ANOVA results showed statistically significant differences in acceptance between exposure groups (F (2, 317) = 5.84, p < 0.01), further reinforcing the role of spatial context. No significant differences were observed between male and female participants, as depicted in

Table 4. Statistical relationships among key variables.

Variable Pair	Test	Statistic	p-Value
Education ↔ RES Acceptance	Pearson r	r = +0.46	<0.01
Age ↔ Wind Support	Pearson r	r = −0.39	<0.01
Exposure Group ↔ RES Support	ANOVA	F(2, 317) = 5.84	<0.01

.

In summary, the findings suggest that while abstract support for renewable energy remains high, local acceptance is conditional, depending on the type of technology, perceived impact, and visual exposure. Misinformation continues to obstruct public acceptance, particularly for wind energy. Education emerges as a strong predictor of both acceptance and resilience to myths. Finally, rural residents with direct experience of RES infrastructure are more critical than those without exposure, underscoring the need for locally tailored communication and planning strategies.

While this study employed descriptive statistics and univariate comparisons to explore public perceptions and demographic influences on RES acceptance, future research could build upon these results using multivariate methods (e.g., logistic or linear regression) to model interaction effects and improve predictive accuracy. This would allow a more comprehensive understanding of the combined influence of education, age, location, and trust on RES attitudes.

Hypothesis Testing Summary

The empirical findings presented above offer clear evidence regarding the validation of the proposed hypotheses:

H1: 

Higher educational attainment is positively associated with acceptance of RES projects.

• → Confirmed. Pearson correlation analysis showed a strong positive relationship between education level and RES acceptance (r = +0.46, p < 0.01).

H2: 

Older age groups show lower acceptance of wind energy projects compared to younger participants.

• → Confirmed. A significant negative correlation was observed between age and support for wind projects (r = −0.39, p < 0.01).

H3: 

Residents with direct visual exposure to RES infrastructure express lower acceptance than those without such exposure.

• → Confirmed. ANOVA results revealed statistically significant differences in acceptance by exposure group (F (2, 317) = 5.84, p < 0.01), with rural residents exposed to RES infrastructure expressing the lowest levels of support.

H4: 

Higher trust in scientific and educational institutions is associated with lower susceptibility to RES-related misconceptions.

• → Partially confirmed. While high trust in scientific institutions was correlated with greater acceptance, this variable was not independently analyzed against misconception indices, suggesting a need for future multivariate modeling.

H5: 

Urban residents demonstrate higher levels of RES acceptance than rural residents.

• → Confirmed. Descriptive statistics show that urban participants were consistently more supportive of both PV and wind energy projects, particularly when compared to rural respondents with visual exposure.

These findings support the broader literature linking education, trust, spatial context, and age to renewable energy acceptance. They also highlight the need for deeper, multivariate analyses in future studies to explore interaction effects among these variables.

4. Discussion and Results

This study highlights the complex and often contradictory nature of public attitudes toward Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) in the Region of Epirus. While a vast majority of participants expressed strong abstract support for renewable technologies, a significantly lower percentage approved of their implementation near residential areas. For instance, although 91.7% supported RES development in general, only 58.3% favored a wind farm near their home. This discrepancy echoes the well-established “social gap” and NIMBY phenomenon, where individuals endorse sustainability in principle but resist its localized expression. Such dynamics are well documented in the literature and often arise when social, spatial, or procedural dimensions of energy infrastructure are overlooked.

The relationship between physical proximity and acceptance further underscores the importance of spatial context. Rural residents with visual exposure to RES infrastructure, particularly wind turbines, were more critical compared to those without exposure or urban residents. This finding suggests that perceived landscape disruption and esthetic concerns play a significant role in shaping local opposition. Visual exposure can intensify feelings of intrusion and environmental injustice, reinforcing the view that technology siting decisions should be context-sensitive and culturally informed.

Beyond spatial factors, this study reveals a considerable level of misinformation, especially regarding wind energy. Many respondents believed that wind farms negatively affect human health, wildlife, and landscape esthetics—concerns that often lack empirical support but are persistent across global case studies. These misconceptions act as significant barriers to acceptance and are frequently exacerbated by limited access to trustworthy information or participatory communication. The findings align with international studies that emphasize the need to actively counteract misinformation with accurate, accessible, and locally relevant content.

Importantly, photovoltaic technology was generally perceived more positively than wind energy, likely due to its less invasive visual presence and more frequent integration into urban and semi-urban settings. This indicates that not all RES technologies are viewed equally and that public acceptance depends not only on environmental benefits but also on how the technology is experienced in daily life.

A particularly strong pattern emerged in relation to education. Participants with higher education levels were significantly more supportive of RES projects, both in general and locally. They were also less susceptible to misinformation and more likely to trust scientific and institutional sources. These results are consistent with the broader literature on environmental literacy and suggest that education functions both as a predictor of acceptance and as a protective factor against unfounded concerns. Age also played a role, with older respondents being more resistant to wind projects, indicating generational differences in environmental risk perception and technological openness.

Trust in information sources was another key determinant. Respondents expressed relatively low trust in public institutions and the media, whereas scientific organizations and schools were perceived as more credible. This trust deficit highlights the necessity of involving non-political actors in information dissemination efforts. Increasing the visibility and role of educational institutions and scientific bodies in RES communication may enhance the legitimacy and acceptance of new projects.

Moreover, the results point to deeper concerns about procedural fairness. Many rural residents expressed dissatisfaction with the decision-making processes behind RES siting, citing a lack of consultation, benefits, and transparency. This reflects a broader pattern of energy injustice, where communities feel excluded from planning processes that directly affect them. In line with energy justice literature, procedural and distributive fairness are essential for fostering public trust and long-term support. Without early engagement, open dialog, and fair benefit-sharing mechanisms, even the most environmentally sound projects may face social resistance.

The findings suggest several policy implications. Firstly, communication strategies must be tailored to local contexts and explicitly address common myths. Generic national messaging is unlikely to resonate with rural populations who experience these technologies differently. Secondly, environmental education—both formal and informal—should be expanded to equip citizens with the critical thinking tools needed to assess sustainability claims. Thirdly, participatory planning should become the norm rather than the exception. Incorporating community voices from the outset can reveal hidden concerns, correct misconceptions, and foster a sense of ownership. Finally, project developers should take visual impact seriously, especially in rural and heritage-rich areas, and consider design solutions that minimize perceived disruption.

In summary, the study confirms that social acceptance of RES in Epirus is not a monolithic phenomenon but a complex interplay of education, geography, trust, and perceived fairness. While general support for renewable energy is robust, actual acceptance depends heavily on local experience, informational quality, and participatory governance. These findings support a multidimensional view of acceptance and suggest that a socially sustainable energy transition will require more than technological deployment—it demands institutional trust-building, educational investment, and spatial sensitivity.

These findings are consistent with prior research across European contexts, which has shown that visual proximity to wind farms often triggers local resistance, particularly when siting decisions are perceived as externally imposed [20,21]. Similarly, Ref. [19] found that rural communities in Greece with strong place attachment were more likely to oppose wind energy development when perceived as threatening landscape identity. The age-related skepticism and generational divide identified in our study also aligns with research by [28,29], both of which found that older adults were less receptive to new energy technologies due to higher risk perception and lower digital-information engagement.

Furthermore, our finding that education correlates with acceptance and resistance to misinformation supports studies by [26,27], which emphasize the protective role of environmental literacy in shaping positive sustainability attitudes. On the other hand, the low trust in public authorities and higher reliance on scientific and school-based sources echoes patterns observed in Western Greece [23] and in energy justice frameworks more broadly [15]. These parallels confirm the importance of tailoring interventions to local institutional trust landscapes and to the credibility of information channels.

These patterns echo findings in broader European contexts. For instance, in France and Germany, acceptance was closely linked to local procedural inclusion and symbolic landscape meanings [6]. Similarly, Ref. [7] emphasizes that trust, fairness, and perceived agency are stronger determinants of RES acceptance than purely environmental attitudes.

5. Conclusions

This study has explored the multidimensional nature of public acceptance of Renewable Energy Sources (RESs) in the Region of Epirus, Greece, with particular emphasis on perceptions, misconceptions, and the role of education and visual exposure. The findings confirm that social acceptance is not solely determined by environmental awareness or support for clean energy but is shaped by a broader set of cognitive, spatial, educational, and procedural factors.

While abstract support for RESs remains high among the surveyed population, actual acceptance of local installations is contingent upon visual exposure, type of technology, and the quality of information available. The clear differentiation between acceptance of photovoltaic systems and wind farms reflects underlying concerns about landscape esthetics, ecological impact, and health-related myths—many of which are more prevalent in rural areas and among older or less-educated respondents.

Statistical analysis confirmed the importance of education in fostering both acceptance and resistance to misinformation. Respondents with higher educational attainment demonstrated a greater ability to assess risks objectively and expressed higher trust in scientific institutions. Conversely, the low trust in public authorities and mass media signals the need to rethink the communication strategies employed by state agencies and project developers.

Visual exposure to RES infrastructure emerged as a significant factor shaping attitudes. Rural residents with direct experience of wind farms expressed notably lower acceptance, suggesting that lived experience can generate both familiarity and friction, depending on how projects are implemented and communicated. This reinforces the importance of participatory processes, transparent planning, and local benefit-sharing mechanisms to ensure procedural fairness.

This study also underscores the role of environmental education and community engagement in bridging the acceptance gap. Citizens not only need access to information but also opportunities to be involved in the energy transition as stakeholders, not passive recipients. Tailoring interventions to local socio-cultural contexts is critical, especially in regions like Epirus with diverse geographic and demographic characteristics.

From a policy perspective, the findings point to several key recommendations: enhancing environmental education, especially in rural areas; promoting early and meaningful community consultation; strengthening institutional transparency; and designing communication campaigns that address specific misconceptions. Furthermore, energy planners must consider local landscape values and strive for visual and ecological integration of projects.

Actionable policy recommendations include

• For municipalities: Establish local RES advisory councils to facilitate early consultation and identify acceptable siting areas; promote visual impact assessments with community input.
• For education providers: Integrate energy literacy and sustainability modules into primary and secondary school curricula; collaborate with local universities and NGOs to deliver community workshops.
• For renewable energy developers: Implement transparent benefit-sharing schemes; publish accessible impact reports in plain language; engage neutral third-party facilitators to build trust during planning stages.

Future research should deepen the understanding of social acceptance through qualitative methods, such as interviews and focus groups, and explore the role of specific population groups (e.g., youth, elderly, farmers, tourism professionals). Longitudinal studies could also track changes in perception over time, particularly in communities hosting new or expanded RES projects. Methodologically, the integration of more advanced statistical and geospatial tools would allow for finer-grained analysis of the social and spatial determinants of acceptance.

In conclusion, the findings of this study contribute to the broader discourse on energy justice and the socio-political dimensions of the energy transition. By aligning empirical evidence with theoretical insights, this work offers practical guidance for designing more inclusive, context-sensitive, and socially resilient energy policies. The Region of Epirus, with its unique socio-environmental profile, provides a valuable microcosm for understanding how RES acceptance unfolds at the intersection of local realities and national energy imperatives.

Based on the findings, several recommendations emerge. First, policy interventions should prioritize environmental education in rural areas and promote locally adapted communication strategies to counter misinformation. Second, public participation should be embedded early in the RES planning process to enhance procedural fairness and community buy-in. Third, institutional actors must rebuild public trust through transparency, scientific outreach, and benefit-sharing schemes. Finally, future research could employ qualitative methods (e.g., interviews, focus groups) and geospatial tools to better understand the spatial and emotional dimensions of RES acceptance, especially among underrepresented groups such as youth, elderly residents, and farmers.

6. Limitations and Ethical Considerations

This study acknowledges potential limitations related to self-report bias, social desirability in responses [39], and uneven access to digital surveys in remote rural areas.

Although the research employed in-person outreach in selected villages to supplement online responses, the voluntary and partially digital nature of the survey may have introduced non-response bias, particularly underrepresenting older individuals, less digitally literate citizens, or those in geographically isolated communities. These constraints may affect the generalizability of findings across the entire regional population.

Nonetheless, the stratified sampling design, combined with the researchers’ field presence during data collection, helped mitigate these challenges and support data reliability.

No personal identifiers were collected, and participation was voluntary and anonymous. As the study involved perceptions rather than sensitive personal data or interventions, no formal ethical approval was required, in line with national guidelines [40].