Entrepreneurial Competence in Higher Education: An Assessment of the Importance Attributed to It by Final-Year Undergraduate Students

Abstract

In an increasingly complex global context, higher education faces the challenge of preparing professionals who are innovative, committed, and socially responsible. Entrepreneurial competence is particularly prominent among the key skills required to meet this goal, given its significant personal and social impact. This study examines how final-year undergraduate students at the University of Deusto (Spain) perceive the importance of entrepreneurial competence—defined as a set of transversal skills, knowledge, and attitudes enabling initiative and opportunity recognition across various contexts—rather than entrepreneurial competence strictly understood as business creation. The sample included 267 students from different faculties. Descriptive, comparative, and ordinal logistic regression analyses (SPSS) were used. The results show that, while entrepreneurial competence was given significant importance, it was ranked comparatively low relative to other competencies. Significant differences by gender were observed, with women rating entrepreneurial competence more highly than men. The faculty variable showed slight disparities, and there were no relevant differences between campuses. These findings highlight the need to reinforce the integration of entrepreneurial competence into educational curricula on a transversal basis, adapting the teaching of this competence to the sociocultural context of students, as well as the need to increase students’ awareness of the importance of entrepreneurial competence. It is proposed that further research should focus on the relationships between intrapreneurship, gender, and academic disciplines, in order to enrich entrepreneurial competence education and its impact on the employability and social commitment of students.

1. Introduction

Knowledge, innovation capacity, and adaptability have become essential elements for sustainability and social progress in today’s complex and rapidly evolving global context. Entrepreneurship, understood not only as the creation of business ventures and the practice of fostering innovation within an existing organisation, also known as intrapreneurship, but also, as a proactive and transformative attitude, has emerged as a key driver of change [1]. In addition to generating economic value, entrepreneurship now embraces social and environmental responsibility, positioning the entrepreneur as an agent of positive change committed to the common good [2].

While intrapreneurship is conceptually distinct—referring to entrepreneurial behaviour within established institutions—this study adopts a broad interpretation of entrepreneurial ability that includes both self-employment and organisational initiatives, in line with [3]. The term transformative attitude is used to describe an individual’s disposition to engage actively in processes of positive change within their professional and social environments—an approach aligned with Mezirow’s theory of transformative learning [4] and the principles underpinning the Sustainable Development Goals [5].

In this study, entrepreneurial ability refers to the transversal competences outlined in the EntreComp framework [6], particularly those related to opportunity identification, creativity, initiative, and the mobilisation of resources. This framework positions entrepreneurial competence as a key skill for navigating uncertain, interdisciplinary, and socially impactful environments. Recent scholarship reinforces this idea, including research by [7,8], who argue that entrepreneurial competence plays a critical role in enhancing employability, fostering innovation, and encouraging civic responsibility among students.

The Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council [9] and the EntreComp framework [6], among others, have situated entrepreneurship as a key competence across all educational levels. Within this framework, universities are redefining their role as catalysts for sustainable change, integrating entrepreneurial competence education into their educational and impact strategies [10].

From a formative and transformative perspective, authors such as [3] have argued that entrepreneurial competence fosters autonomy, resilience, and the ability to generate innovative solutions to complex problems. In this regard, entrepreneurial competence is closely aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and is recognised not only as a personal and professional asset, but also as a strategic instrument for tackling global challenges and promoting progress towards the 2030 Agenda—particularly SDG 4 (Quality Education), SDG 8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth), and SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) [11]. Entrepreneurial competence is also increasingly being seen as a mechanism for reducing structural inequalities and fostering social inclusion, as it provides equitable opportunities for personal and professional development [2]. Contemporary research reflects a paradigm shift in entrepreneurial motivations, particularly among younger generations, who are increasingly launching initiatives that successfully integrate social and environmental impact with economic sustainability.

Several studies have shown that entrepreneurial competence has a positive effect on the self-esteem, self-efficacy, and employability of university students [12].

In this context of transformation and growing complexity, where the university’s role as a driver of sustainable development and equity is particularly prominent, universities—as key institutions in the development of human capital—bear a crucial responsibility for fostering entrepreneurial competence. Their mission goes beyond traditional teaching and research, embracing the active promotion of inclusive and sustainable development within its spheres of influence. Conceptual frameworks such as the Triple, Quadruple, and Quintuple Helix models [13,14] underscore the university’s role as a catalyst for innovation and intersectoral collaboration. Within this context, entrepreneurial universities contribute to enhancing students’ employability, self-efficacy, and capacity for innovation [15,16].

The importance of, and the impact attributed to the development of entrepreneurial skills have thus been amply demonstrated. Numerous studies have examined university students’ motivation or intention to become self-employed entrepreneurs [17]; however, there remains a relative lack of in-depth research into how students perceive the importance of acquiring entrepreneurial competences during their university years and from a broader perspective [18,19].

Entrepreneurial competence is therefore an essential transversal skill in higher education [6], which is usually worked on within broader competence frameworks. In recent years, the development of transversal competences or soft skills has become a strategic priority for higher education institutions. Increasingly, they are implementing a variety of strategies to integrate these skills into academic education, with the aim of better preparing students to face the challenges of today’s labour market and society. According to the World Economic Forum [20], skills such as creative thinking, active listening, emotional intelligence and collaboration are already central to contemporary job profiles. Universities therefore have a vital role to play in embedding the development of these competences within the academic curriculum, promoting an education that prepares students not only for their first job, but also for a dynamic and multidisciplinary professional environment.

In this way, universities are developing solid, well-recognised educational models to support their students in improving their transversal competences. The chapter entitled ‘El desarrollo de competencias en la universidad: Análisis de modelos institucionales en España y América Latina’, [The development of competences at university: An analysis of institutional models in Spain and Latin America] [21] examined how several universities have adopted a competence-based approach in their educational models, recognising its value for a more comprehensive and contextualised education. These authors noted that, while the discourse surrounding the importance of competences—particularly transversal competences such as critical thinking, communication, and teamwork—is widespread across many institutions, their effective implementation continues to pose significant challenges. Among the universities analysed, those with more established models showed a clear commitment to the incorporation of active methodologies, specific teacher training, and the coherent assessment of competences. Their analysis concluded that the most effective models are those that integrate competences into the curriculum across the board, establish mechanisms for monitoring and continuous improvement, and promote a type of education that is oriented towards both professional performance and social commitment.

Ref. [22] analysed the self-assessment of transversal competences among 1421 university students, and found that, although competences such as ‘Cooperation and Respect’ were well developed, students had some deficits in competences such as ‘Communication and Interaction’ and ‘Learning and Innovation’, which underlined the need for universities to implement training strategies to strengthen these skills, as they are essential in terms of employability.

The University of Deusto (UD), a Spanish Jesuit institution, is aligned with this paradigm, as it has adopted a humanistic and holistic educational model that emphasises critical thinking, social responsibility, and active citizenship. It has its own competency-based learning model, known as MAUD (an acronym that stands for Modelo de Aprendizaje Universidad de Deusto [University of Deusto Learning Model] [23]. This is a comprehensive educational model aimed at social and personal transformation, which assists students in their development as individuals. The UD not only aims to transmit specialised knowledge to students and prepare them to engage in a specific profession, but it also seeks to support them in their process of personal growth and development, so that they can develop their own—intellectual, personal and social—potential in order to provide creative solutions to society’s problems. This framework includes a commitment to providing students with training in 22 transversal competences, grouped into six macro-competences [24].

This article is therefore framed within the UD’s institutional strategy, which conceives education in entrepreneurial competences as a transversal axis for helping students develop into committed citizens, within the more global skill framework mentioned above. The aim of this research is to explore students’ perceptions of the development of entrepreneurial competences, looking at different sociodemographic variables, and assess to what extent they consider them to be important as part of their education processes. The essential reason for this is that there is consensus in the literature that the academic performance of university students is positively influenced by the subjective importance they attach to subjects and competences. This relationship has been extensively explained by motivational theories such as the Expectancy-Value Theory [25], which posits that individuals are more likely to engage in tasks they perceive as valuable; and Self-Determination Theory [26], which explains motivation through the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. These theories suggest that when students attribute value to entrepreneurial competence, they are more likely to engage, persist, and succeed. Recent empirical studies [27,28] have confirmed that both personal interest and perceived usefulness of academic content are significant predictors of academic success. Consequently, identifying and fostering students’ positive appreciation of specific competences can serve as an effective pedagogical strategy for enhancing learning outcomes in higher education.

2. Theoretical Framework and Hypotheses

This study is grounded in two key psychological theories—Expectancy-Value Theory [25] and Self-Determination Theory [26]—to understand students’ perceptions of entrepreneurial competence as a transversal skill. Both theories emphasise the importance of perceived value and intrinsic motivation in determining an individual’s engagement and performance.

Expectancy-Value Theory posits that individuals are more likely to engage in tasks they believe are both valuable and achievable. Applied to this context, the more students perceive entrepreneurial competence as important for their future professional success, the more likely they are to develop and apply it. Self-Determination Theory, meanwhile, highlights how the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness drives engagement. If entrepreneurial competence is framed as an empowering and socially relevant skill, it can be internalised more effectively by students.

The study is also conceptually supported by the EntreComp Framework [6], which defines entrepreneurial competence as a set of transversal abilities that go beyond business creation. These include creativity, opportunity recognition, mobilisation of resources, and value creation—skills that are relevant in both self-employment and intrapreneurial contexts. Previous research [7,8] has underscored the role of these competences in improving employability, fostering innovation, and promoting social transformation.

Moreover, the role of sociocultural and institutional contexts—such as the University of Deusto’s MAUD model [23] and its emphasis on holistic and values-driven education—adds another layer to the theoretical foundation. These contexts shape how students interpret and internalise transversal competences, especially entrepreneurial competence, which has become increasingly linked to civic responsibility and sustainable development. The synthesis of work processes developed in the study can be seen in Figure 1.

In line with the theoretical and institutional frameworks presented—including Expectancy-Value Theory [25], Self-Determination Theory [26], the EntreComp framework [6], and the University of Deusto’s MAUD [23] the following hypotheses were formulated to guide the empirical analysis:

Hypothesis 1 (H1).

Students are expected to perceive entrepreneurial competence as moderately to highly important; however, they may rate it lower in relative importance compared to other transversal competences promoted by their academic institution.

• Theoretical basis. H1 is grounded in Expectancy-Value Theory, which posits that students are more likely to value and engage with competencies they perceive as useful for their future academic or professional success [25].

Hypothesis 2 (H2).

The level of importance attributed to entrepreneurial competence will differ by gender, with female students expected to assign higher importance than male students.

• Theoretical basis. H2 is based on Self-Determination Theory, which emphasises how social contexts and intrinsic motivations—such as the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness—influence students’ value attribution to educational tasks and goals [26].

Hypothesis 3 (H3).

Students’ perceptions of the importance of entrepreneurial competence will vary significantly across academic faculties (Faculty of Health Sciences, Social Sciences and Business Studies, Social Sciences and Humanities, Law, Education and Sport, and Engineering), reflecting differences in disciplinary culture and curricular exposure.

• Theoretical basis. H3 is informed by the EntreComp Framework, which conceptualises entrepreneurial competence as a transversal skill whose development and relevance may differ depending on academic discipline and learning context [6].

Hypothesis 4 (H4).

There will be no statistically significant difference in the perceived importance of entrepreneurial competence between students from the Bilbao and San Sebastián campuses, given the shared institutional model and socio-educational context.

• Theoretical basis. This hypothesis is based on the University of Deusto’s MAUD, which ensures a coherent, values-based, and competence-oriented learning experience across all programmes and campuses [23].

3. Methodology

This study is framed within the broad institutional framework of the University of Deusto’s (UD) strategic commitment to social impact, specifically through its educational work [29]. It embraces a holistic and lifelong approach to learning, understood as a multidimensional process that goes beyond the confines of formal academic education and contributes to individuals’ personal development and professional integration throughout their life paths. At the centre of this vision is the University of Deusto Learning Model (MAUD) [23], which articulates the pedagogical and ethical principles of the institution, guiding the design and implementation of its educational strategies.

Within this institutional framework, learning is conceived as a transformative process involving both the acquisition of disciplinary knowledge and the development of key competences. These competences are grouped into two main categories: transversal competences, which are common to all academic programmes and form part of UD’s educational identity; and specific competences, which are directly related to the demands and epistemologies of the various professional fields. The acquisition of these competences is understood not only as a means for personal development and transformation, but also as a mechanism to promote social transformation, with a view to positioning students as active agents of change in their communities and professional contexts. This dual perspective—based on individual development and social impact—constitutes the conceptual foundation of the present study, which seeks to assess the relevance and perceived value of entrepreneurial competence among final-year undergraduate students.

The UD has adopted a transversal competence framework that encompasses 22 key skills designed to support students’ personal, academic, and professional development (see

Table 1. Transversal competencies. Source: Own elaboration based on MAUD [29].

#	Competence Description
C1	Self-esteem and confidence
C2	Leadership
C3	Teamwork
C4	Creativity and innovation (generation of new ideas and solutions)
C5	Entrepreneurial competence (undertaking actions and projects)
C6	Adaptability to change
C7	Active listening
C8	Oral communication
C9	Written communication
C10	Communication in different languages
C11	Coping in multicultural and socially diverse environments
C12	Interest in learning
C13	Autonomy and engagement in learning
C14	Critical thinking
C15	Commitment to a job well done and discipline
C16	Proficiency in the use of technology
C17	Critical and responsible use of technology
C18	Social commitment
C19	Ethical and honest behaviour
C20	Self-reflection
C21	Questioning the meaning of life and transcendence
C22	Respect for and commitment to nature and the environment

). While this study focuses specifically on entrepreneurial competence (C5)—understood as the ability to initiate actions, manage projects, and create value in various contexts—the broader framework also includes competences related to personal growth (e.g., self-esteem, autonomy, adaptability, self-reflection), interpersonal communication and collaboration (e.g., teamwork, oral and written communication, active listening), and ethical-social engagement (e.g., social commitment, ethical behaviour, respect for the environment). Other competences address critical and creative thinking, technological literacy, and multicultural awareness, as well as openness to lifelong learning and existential reflection. Together, these transversal skills reflect the institution’s holistic educational model, aimed at fostering socially responsible, reflective, and capable graduates across all academic disciplines.

This study focuses on entrepreneurial competence (C5) because of its growing importance as a transversal skill that promotes initiative, value creation, and adaptability across academic and professional contexts. Unlike traditional views of entrepreneurship limited to business creation, this competence is understood here as a broader capacity aligned with the EntreComp [6] framework and the university’s mission to foster innovative, responsible, and engaged graduates. Its relevance to employability and social impact makes it a strategic area for deeper analysis within the broader set of transversal competences.

3.1. Population and Sample

The empirical part of this research has focused on final-year undergraduate students enrolled in the fourth or fifth year of their respective programmes during the 2021–2022 academic year. A total of 267 students participated in the study, which utilised a convenience sampling technique. The final sample consisted of 267 students, 58.4% of whom were female and 41.2% male, with 89% based at the Bilbao campus and 11% at the San Sebastian campus (see

Table 2. Sample. Source: own elaboration.

Gender	N	%
Female	110	41.20
Male	157	58.80
Total	267	100.00
Campus	N	%
Bilbao	237	88.76
San Sebastian	30	11.24
Total	267	100.00
Faculty	N	%
Faculty 1	49	18.35
Faculty 2	29	10.86
Faculty 3	34	12.73
Faculty 4	8	3.00
Faculty 5	13	4.87
Faculty 6	134	50.19
Total	267	100.00

).

Table 2 with its figures broadly reflects the composition of the university’s undergraduate student body.

3.2. Instrument, Variables and Procedure

A quantitative, descriptive survey design was used. The collection instrument was a questionnaire designed and validated by experts, based on the transversal competences of the Deusto Learning Model [24]. The questionnaire underwent a rigorous validation process. Seven lecturers and researchers with experience in educational research and different positions of responsibility at the UD, as well as five final-year students, reviewed the instrument (see

Table 3. Technical specifications of the study.

Feature	Description
Study design	Quantitative, descriptive survey
Sample	Final-year students at the University of Deusto
Sample size	267
Sampling method	Convenience sampling
Data collection method	Online questionnaire using validated scales
Instrument Validity	Spearman
Data Analysis Tools	SPSS 28.2
Study Period	2021–2022 academic course

).

The questionnaire, whose type is detailed in Table 3, included several blocks: 1. sociodemographic data (gender, degree, campus); 2. assessment of the importance of, and proficiency in, each competence; 3. participation in educational activities. Participants gave informed consent and their participation was voluntary, confidential and anonymous throughout the process.

The second block included one dependent variable: the importance that students attributed to each transversal competence for their professional future after completing their university education, referred to as ‘Competence [1–22]—IMPORTANCE’.

This research provides an in-depth analysis of the dependent variable ‘IMPORTANCE’, particularly focused on the entrepreneurial competence within the broader framework of the transversal competences listed in Table 1. The study included three independent variables: gender (with two subgroups, female and male; although the option ‘prefer not to say’ was offered, as no responses were recorded for this group, it was not considered); campus (two subgroups, Bilbao and San Sebastián); and faculty (six subgroups: Faculty of Health Sciences, Social Sciences and Business Studies, Social Sciences and Humanities, Law, Education and Sport, and Engineering).

Data collection was conducted using a custom-designed questionnaire administered via the Qualtrics platform (https://www.qualtrics.com/, accessed on 5 May 2025), ensuring that participation was entirely voluntary and that responses were handled with strict confidentiality and reported in aggregate form. The questionnaire was addressed to all 1555 final-year students. A total of 267 valid responses were obtained, representing a response rate of 17%, with a confidence level of 90%, and a margin of error of ±4.58%.

Data analysis was performed using SPSS statistical software, version 28.0. (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA, 2021). Analyses of means and standard deviations was conducted to validate H1 and analyse the importance that students assigned to the entrepreneurial competence in relation to the other transversal competences promoted by the University, based on the transversal competences of the Deusto Learning Model [24]. Before applying between-group comparison tests in order to validate the following hypotheses, the normality assumption for the variable ‘Entrepreneurial competence IMPORTANCE’ was checked using the Shapiro–Wilk test (see

Table 4. Normality tests (Kolmogorov–Smirnov, Shapiro–Wilk). Source: Own elaboration based on the results obtained using SPSS.

Normality Tests
	Kolmogorov–Smirnov			Shapiro–Wilk
	Statistic	Df	Sig.	Statistic	Df	Sig.
Entrepreneurial competence IMPORTANCE	0.247	267	<0.001	0.875	267	<0.001

), which is appropriate for samples smaller than 2000 cases per group. The validation of the scale was carried out as mentioned above by experts in the area of university and entrepreneurial competence.

Once the Shapiro–Wilk test was applied to the dependent variable, the results for ‘Entrepreneurial competence IMPORTANCE’ (W = 0.875, p < 0.001) did not have a normal distribution, given that p was less than 0.05) (as shown in Table 4), suggesting that the use of non-parametric tests would be more appropriate for further analysis.

The non-parametric Mann–Whitney U test was therefore used to compare the perceived importance of the entrepreneurial competence by gender, in order to validate H2. The Mann–Whitney U test does not require the assumption of normality and is suitable for comparing ordinal or non-normal distributions between two independent groups.

This test is suitable for detecting differences between two independent groups when the dependent variable is ordinal, or does not follow a normal distribution [30,31]. It is widely recommended for the analysis of Likert-type scales in educational contexts [32].

After that, an ordinal logistic regression was performed to examine the influence of sociodemographic factors—such as gender, faculty, and campus—on the perceived importance of entrepreneurial competence (H3 and H4) in a non-standardised sample. This type of analysis is particularly appropriate in social and educational research where outcome variables are structured using Likert-type scales. The dependent variable in the study—perception of entrepreneurial competence, assessed in terms of importance (‘Entrepreneurial competence IMPORTANCE’)—was measured using a five-point ordinal scale. This technique is appropriate when the outcome variable has ordered but not equidistant categories, and cannot be treated as a continuous variable [33].

Furthermore, prior normality tests on the quantitative variables indicated that the data did not follow a normal distribution (showing significant deviation from normality in both the female group (W = 0.816, p < 0.001) and the male group (W = 0.865, p < 0.001)), thereby reinforcing the decision to use non-parametric statistical methods, such as ordinal regression.

4. Results

The results are shown in detail according to the four hypotheses posed in this study. In order to validate the first hypothesis (H1), a descriptive analysis was conducted to show how important the participants—a sample of 267 final-year students—perceived each of the competences in the UD’s transversal competence framework. Responses were recorded on a Likert scale graded from 1 to 5. As shown in

Table 5. Mean and standard deviation of the importance attributed to the competences studied. Source: Own elaboration based on the results obtained using SPSS.

#	Competence Description	Mean I	Standard Deviation I
C8	Oral communication	4.57	0.586
C3	Teamwork	4.52	0.621
C12	Interest in learning	4.47	0.684
C1	Self-esteem and confidence	4.47	0.633
C6	Adaptation to change	4.46	0.638
C7	Active listening	4.46	0.661
C15	Commitment to a job well done and discipline	4.45	0.643
C13	Autonomy and engagement in learning	4.40	0.656
C14	Critical thinking	4.40	0.655
C20	Self-reflection	4.38	0.702
C11	Coping in multicultural and socially diverse environments	4.37	0.732
C10	Communication in different languages	4.34	0.789
C19	Ethical and honest behaviour	4.34	0.765
C9	Written communication	4.28	0.716
C18	Social commitment	4.28	0.779
C16	Proficiency in the use of technology	4.28	0.676
C4	Creativity and innovation (generation of new ideas and solutions)	4.27	0.726
C17	Critical and responsible use of technology	4.22	0.751
C22	Respect for and commitment to nature and the environment	4.19	0.840
C2	Leadership	4.04	0.711
C5	Entrepreneurial competence (undertaking actions and projects)	3.96	0.810
C21	Questioning the meaning of life and transcendence	3.69	1.009

, entrepreneurial competence (C5) ranked lower than most other transversal competences in perceived importance, a finding that may reflect students’ limited exposure to entrepreneurial learning opportunities beyond business contexts.

The results shown in Table 5 indicate that the mean of the variable ‘(5/22 Entrepreneurial competence (undertaking actions and projects))’ defined in this study as ‘Entrepreneurial competence IMPORTANCE’, was 3.96, which places it in the lowest part of the ratings obtained. This means that students believed that 22 other competences were more important for their professional future than entrepreneurial competence. Standard deviation was around 0.81, indicating moderate variability in responses. It can be concluded that H1 is accepted.

The results are aligned with previous research, which reflects a similar perception and highlights a moderately low level of importance attributed to entrepreneurial competence among university students. For example, ref. [34] found that, although students recognised the importance of entrepreneurial competence, they did not consider it a priority in their professional education. This was partly attributed to the lack of a strong institutional entrepreneurial culture and the limited practical integration of entrepreneurial competence into the academic curriculum. Similarly, ref. [35] identified that many students saw entrepreneurial competence as an attractive—but not essential—option, which was therefore displaced by other competences that they considered more immediately demanded in terms of accessing the labour market.

It is thus suggested that, while there is a general recognition of the importance of entrepreneurial competence, various contextual and structural factors influence students’ failure to prioritise it as an essential competence for their future careers.

4.1. Mann–Whitney U

This analysis aimed to validate H2 and to study the perceived importance of entrepreneurial competence by gender. As shown in

Table 6. Ranges. Source: Own elaboration based on the results obtained using SPSS.

Ranges
	Gender	N	Average Range	Cumulative Ranges
Entrepreneurial Competence IMPORTANCE	1 (females)	156	141.92	22,139.50
	2 (males)	111	122.87	13,638.50
	Total	267

, females (group 1) had higher mean rates, indicating that they valued this competence more highly than males and identified more closely with it (group 2), thus H2 is accepted. The results of the non-parametric Mann–Whitney U test, conducted to examine gender differences in perceived importance, revealed statistically significant differences in the levels of importance attributed (U = 7422.5, Z = −2.142, p = 0.032) (see

Table 7. Test statistics for entrepreneurial competence. Source: Own elaboration based on the results obtained using SPSS.

Test Statistics ª
	Entrepreneurial Competence IMPORTANCE
Mann–Whitney U test	7422.500
Wilcoxon W	13,638.500
Z	−2.142
Asymptotic significance (two-tailed)	0.032

ª Grouping variable: Gender.

).

This finding is supported by previous research suggesting that women, in diverse educational and cultural contexts, attribute greater importance to entrepreneurial competence, especially when it is linked to goals related to autonomy, social impact or professional development. For instance, ref. [36] found that women had a greater inclination towards formative entrepreneurial activities, partly driven by a heightened perception of economic and professional risk, which in turn motivated them to pursue greater preparation and control through entrepreneurial competence. Similarly, some studies showed that female students with egalitarian gender attitudes displayed higher levels of entrepreneurial skills [37], partly because they saw entrepreneurial competence as a tool to overcome traditional work barriers and gain independence.

On the other hand, following an international study of more than 3000 students [38], noted that although men expressed greater entrepreneurial intention in general terms, women placed greater value on the competences associated with entrepreneurial competence when it was linked to social purposes, financial security or life-work balance. This indicates that women’s motivation towards entrepreneurial competence was not only driven by economic ambition, but also by a search for holistic well-being and personal fulfilment, which explained the greater importance they attached to this competence. In summary, the findings suggest that women tend to perceive entrepreneurial competence as having more prominence due to a greater sensitivity to contextual and educational factors that promote this attitude.

The above results (see Table 6 and Table 7) were corroborated by analysing the means of each group, shown in

Table 8. Mean, variance, and standard deviation of the variable ‘Entrepreneurial competence IMPORTANCE’ by gender. Source: Own elaboration based on the results obtained using SPSS.

Descriptives
	Gender			Statistic	Standard Error
Entrepreneurship IMPORTANCE	1 (females)	Mean		4.08	0.65
		95% confidence interval for mean	Lower bound	2.98
			Upper bound	3.24
		5% trimmed mean		3.10
		Median		3.00
		Variance		0.665
		Standard Deviation		0.816
		Minimum		1
		Maximum		5
		Range		4
		Interquartile range		1
		Skewness		0.013	0.194
		Kurtosis		0.048	0.077
	2 (males)	Mean		3.80
		95% confidence interval for mean	Lower bound	2.74
			Upper bound	3.04
		5% trimmed mean		2.89
		Median		3.00
		Variance		0.661
		Standard Deviation		0.813
		Minimum		1
		Maximum		5
		Range		4
		Interquartile range		1
		Skewness		0.99	0.229
		Kurtosis		–0.197	0.455

.

Table 8 shows that the mean scores that women (group 1) gave to the variable ‘Entrepreneurial competence IMPORTANCE’ (see Table 8) was higher ($\overline{\mathrm{x}}=3.11$) than that given by men ($\overline{\mathrm{x}}=2.89$).

4.2. Ordinal Logistic Regression

The analysis in this section assesses how the independent variables (gender, faculty, and campus/site) affected the likelihood that students would attribute greater importance to entrepreneurial competence. The aim was therefore to validate H3 and H4 by analysing the influence of sociodemographic factors such as gender, faculty, and campus on the perceived importance of entrepreneurial competence.

The goodness-of-fit test in

Table 9. Goodness of fit. Measurement of overall model fit. Source: Own elaboration based on the results obtained using SPSS.

Goodness of Fit
	Chi-Squared	df	Sig.
Pearson	44.407	57	0.888
Deviance	36.826	57	0.983

Link function: Logit.

shows that the ordinal logistic regression model fits the data adequately. Both Pearson’s test (χ² = 44.41, df = 57, p = 0.888) and the Deviance test (χ² = 36.83, df = 57, p = 0.983) indicated a good fit between the observed values and those expected by the model (p > 0.05). The model therefore had a good overall fit, which validated the interpretation of the coefficients.

The next step involved making an interpretation for each independent variable analysed in the regression model, which is summarised in

Table 10. Key results from ordinal logistic regression. Source: Own elaboration based on the results obtained using SPSS.

Variable	B (Estimate)	p	CI 95%	Interpretation
Gender = 1 (female)	0.638	0.009	[0.159–1.118]	Women tend to value the importance of entrepreneurial competence more highly.
Faculty 1	−0.576	0.353	[−1.790–0.639]	Not significant
Faculty 2	−0.245	0.589	[−1.131–0.642]	Not significant
Faculty 3	−1.046	0.036	[−2.024–−0.068]	Significantly lower perceived importance of entrepreneurial competence
Faculty 4	0.203	0.793	[−1.318–1.725]	Not significant
Faculty 5	−0.351	0.333	[−1.063–0.360]	Not significant
Campus/site = 1	0.601	0.160	[−0.238–1.439]	Not significant, but positive trend

Although six faculties were included in the sample, one of them had to be excluded from the ordinal logistic regression analysis due to insufficient or missing data for statistical modelling.

. In the ordinal logistic regression model applied to the variable ‘Entrepreneurial competence IMPORTANCE’, the most relevant predictors were gender and faculty. The analysis showed that the female gender was significantly associated with valuing entrepreneurial competence more highly (B = 0.638; p = 0.009; 95% CI [0.159–1.118]). Therefore, the results analysed on the gender variable reinforced those obtained in previous analyses and indicated that women are more likely to consider entrepreneurial competence to be highly important.

The results analysed on the faculty variable were generally not statistically significant, although the trends observed could be deemed to be exploratory clues inviting future analyses with larger samples or mixed approaches. As noted by the literature, mixed methods can compensate for quantitative limitations in studies with small sample sizes. Including qualitative data would make it possible to contextualise the results and generate hypotheses for future research with larger samples [39].

Although campus/site was not statistically significant, a positive trend was identified at Campus 1 (B = 0.601), which might suggest greater institutional integration of entrepreneurial competence at that site. These results were validated by bootstrap simulations with 997 samples. Campus 1 accounts for over 80% of the institution’s total student population. Thus, H3 and H4 are accepted, as students’ perception of the importance of entrepreneurial competence varies significantly depending on faculty affiliation. In addition, there are no significant differences in perceived importance of entrepreneurial competence by campus, due to the similar socio-economic and institutional environments.

5. Discussion and Conclusions

The findings of this study support the need to strengthen entrepreneurial competence education as a key transversal skill for employability, innovation, and social engagement. Although the importance attributed to acquiring and developing entrepreneurial competence is perceived as medium-high, the difference in the assessment made according to gender prompts reflection on entrepreneurial intention after the completion of university studies. Numerous studies have shown that the male gender is associated with higher levels of self-employment in entrepreneurial ventures [40,41,42]. As [42] reported, there is little empirical research assessing the validity and impact of entrepreneurial competence training initiatives from a gender perspective, which shows a “nascent opportunity for academic exploration” [43]. Along the same lines, another study analysed the influence of gender on the entrepreneurial intention of university students in Spain, and found that men generally have a higher commitment to entrepreneurial competence than women [44].

Given the broad approach to entrepreneurial competence adopted in this analysis (not only understood as the creation or setting up of self-employed initiatives or self-initiated business pursuits), the results obtained invite reflection on the analysis of intrapreneurship in organisations by gender. The review in this case suggests that, while intrapreneurship has gained interest in recent years, studies that have addressed it from a gender perspective are in a minority, highlighting the limited attention that the scientific community has given so far to studying and analysing the reality of intrapreneurship from a gender perspective, and therefore, the need for further research in this field [45]. In a similar vein, some authors emphasised the need to develop a research agenda that incorporates a gender perspective in the study of intrapreneurship [46]. Although some studies have suggested that organisations led by women may foster a more favourable intrapreneurial culture—characterised by autonomy, risk-taking, and teamwork—the absence of consistent comparative research limits the ability to identify clear patterns.

On the other hand, the analysis of the importance attributed to this competence by students from different fields of knowledge suggests that there remains room for interdisciplinary progress in the conceptualisation of entrepreneurial competence. Whereas the overall average is high, from the perspective of individual academic disciplines, entrepreneurial competence is still regarded as less important than the other competences as a whole. Specifically, the lower perceived importance of entrepreneurial competence in some faculties (e.g., Social Sciences and Humanities) may reflect differing curricular priorities and disciplinary cultures. This aligns with findings from previous studies [34,35], which suggest that students in non-business fields often associate entrepreneurial competence with commercial ventures rather than with broader skills such as innovation and initiative. These disciplinary perceptions underscore the need to better integrate entrepreneurial competence into diverse academic curricula, adapting its framing to each field’s professional outlook and pedagogical culture.

Finally, the non-significant results by campus make sense, since the home sites of the participating students are within a very close socio-economic environment and share the same economic structure. An analysis in different geographical settings might yield different conclusions, which could help to complement the results of this study in the future and thus include other sociodemographic variables to assess its impact.

6. Future Avenues of Research

The results of this study offer a broad range of opportunities for future research on the development, perception, and implementation of entrepreneurial competence in higher education contexts. A first area of exploration involves the incorporation of qualitative methodologies to gain deeper insight into the meaning students attribute to entrepreneurial competence. Techniques such as interviews, focus groups or discourse analysis could provide a richer and more contextualised view. Researchers such as [47] have highlighted the value of the qualitative approach in capturing the complexity of entrepreneurial learning processes, especially in university contexts.

A second line of research is related to students’ self-perceived development and mastery of entrepreneurial competence as well as level of proficiency acquired by students in the different competences. As recent empirical studies pointed out [27,28], the relationship between the importance attributed to developing certain competences and the performance and level of proficiency that students acquire once they have completed the university learning process could be studied in greater depth.

Another relevant line of inquiry involves exploring how the EntreComp framework can be adapted across different disciplines to better integrate entrepreneurial competence into diverse academic curricula. It is also relevant to develop longitudinal studies that follow students from the beginning of their education until they enter the labour market [48,49]. This would make it possible to analyse how their entrepreneurial attitudes and skills evolve over time, as well as their real impact on their career path. Ref. [2] argued that there is a need for such studies in order to overcome static analyses and understand the long-term effects of entrepreneurial competence education.

A fourth relevant avenue of research to be explored would involve applying an intersectional perspective to the analysis of entrepreneurial competence, taking into account variables such as gender, ethnic background, social class, and functional diversity. Studies such as that by [50] have shown how gender, in interaction with other factors, influences the perception and experience of entrepreneurial competence, revealing structural inequalities that need to be addressed by research.

Another strategic research path would entail assessing the impact of entrepreneurial education on the professional life of graduates. Ref. [12] stressed the need to link education and training to tangible employability, self-efficacy and entrepreneurial competence outcomes in a variety of contexts in their systematic review.

Acknowledging that no analysis was conducted on non-response bias, future research will aim to incorporate institutional data to assess possible differences between respondents and non-respondents.

Finally, it is proposed that further research should be conducted into the effectiveness of active and experiential methodologies, including challenge-based learning, social entrepreneurial competence and innovation labs. Ref. [51] argued that experiential learning and action are fundamental to the real development of entrepreneurial competences, and advocated innovative practice-based pedagogical approaches.

To enhance the generalizability and relevance of future findings, it is important to expand the sample beyond the current focus on university students aged 18 to 22. Including participants from a broader range of age groups and with diverse professional experiences would provide a more comprehensive view of entrepreneurial behaviour. Additionally, future research should consider incorporating the perspectives of employers who hire university graduates. Their insights could help evaluate the practical value of entrepreneurial competence education and identify gaps between academic preparation and labour market demands.

Furthermore, conducting longitudinal studies would offer a deeper understanding of how entrepreneurial intentions and behaviours evolve over time. By following individuals throughout their academic journey and into their professional lives, researchers can assess the long-term impact of educational interventions and skill development on entrepreneurial outcomes. Together, these directions would strengthen the evidence base and contribute to more effective, inclusive, and practice-oriented educational policies.

7. Contributions and Limitations of the Study

Theoretically, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of how entrepreneurial competence—as defined in the EntreComp and MAUD frameworks—is perceived as a transversal skill among final-year university students, extending the existing literature by incorporating gender and disciplinary variations. Practically, the findings may inform curriculum development by highlighting the need for the greater integration of entrepreneurial competence in non-business disciplines.

Limitations include the date of the study, which was conducted in the 2021–2022 academic year. It is intended to be updated in upcoming academic years. The small sample size is also considered a limitation, which is intended to expand in upcoming studies. The low response rate (17%), potential non-response bias, and the study’s restriction to a single institution, which limits generalizability, are also considered limitations of the current study. These factors are acknowledged as areas for improvement in future research.