Game-Based Simulation and Study of Pedestrian-Automated Vehicle Interactions
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Background and Motivation
2.1. Embodiment in Virtual Environments and Video Games
2.2. Existing AV Simulators
- Availability—Availability refers to which simulators are publicly available for further research and if the simulators are free and/or open-source. Broad availability increases the likelihood of public use, and therefore increases the research utility of the tool.
- Engines and Technical Development—This category refers to the underlying technical elements enabling the simulators. Most simulators are built upon game engines as a means of enabling realistic physics and graphics, with relatively straightforward development techniques. The dominant game engines are Unity and Unreal, although there are other options available too. Depending on the game engine, different programming knowledge may be needed for tool development or modification. Unity requires C# (or Javascript), and Unreal requires C++. Similarly, the game engine determines the supported platforms for tool use. More platform support tends to increase the availability of the tool for research use among diverse audiences.
- Usability, Type of Application, and Target Audience—This refers to the type of application each simulator is, namely, whether the simulation is a desktop or virtual reality application. This dictates the cost and complexity of the requisite software and hardware. We then identify, in coarse and subjective terms, the complexity of setting up and running the simulator. Due to the fact that this research combines social and technical elements, it is not reasonable to assume a high level of technical familiarity from all application users—even survey facilitators. We therefore also identify the target audience for which the simulator may be readily used to conduct research.
- Realistic Graphics Environment—This category identifies the subjective visual quality of the 3D environment and models or prefabs used in the simulation. Graphics are an important element towards increasing the engagement of a simulator and a user’s perceived embodiment. The more plausible the graphics, the better and more realistic the experience the tool will offer. Increased realism is often seen as essential to generating plausible and repeatable research data from game-based tools.
- Pedestrian Point of View—Pedestrian Point of View denotes whether a tool is well-suited to pedestrian-centric research and development application. Since we explore human interaction with AVs, and not the other way around, it is important to identify which simulators offer the ability for players to “become” a pedestrian.
2.3. Unmet Opportunity
- What are typical pedestrian–vehicle interaction patterns for varying degrees of autonomy?
- Can goal-driven humans effectively “coexist” with goal-driven automated vehicles, e.g., in a social context?
- Does the degree to which a pedestrian is familiar with autonomy change these interactions? How?
- Does the knowledge that a vehicle is automated change a pedestrian’s interaction patterns? How?
- Does exposure to automated vehicles increase or decrease pedestrian trust in those vehicles?
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Initial Build and Play Testing
3.2. Second Build and Play Testing
3.3. Third Build and Play Testing
3.4. Final Build and Play Testing
- the survey answers to the questions,
- the location data (country/city) that is automatically extracted from the users’ IPs using a free API service, and
- some in-game info extracted by events during the scenarios (score, being “hit” by a car, and time of “hit”).
- Scenario 1: All cars, human or AI operated, stop safely before hitting the user-pedestrian if physically possible. The possibility of being “hit” is low.
- Scenario 2: Some cars may stop before colliding with the user-pedestrian. Users do not know which, if any, given car (AV or human driven) will stop or not. The possibility of being “hit” is increased.
- Scenario 3: Some cars may stop before the user-pedestrian while others will not. In this case, the AVs are identified by a green light indication that appears under the vehicles. This indication starts when the pedestrian–AV distance is less than 15 m. The AVs will always stop before hitting the pedestrian if physically possible (Figure 12).
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
7. Future Work
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix A.1
- BRIEF SUMMARY
- PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
- WHAT YOU WILL BE ASKED TO DO
- POTENTIAL BENEFITS
- POTENTIAL RISKS
- PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY
- YOUR RIGHTS TO PARTICIPATE, SAY NO, OR WITHDRAW
- CONTACT INFORMATION
- DOCUMENTATION OF INFORMED CONSENT
Appendix A.2
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CARLA Simulator | AirSim | Mississippi State University Tool | |
---|---|---|---|
Availability | Free and Open Source | Free and Open Source | Not on Public Repository |
Unity | No Compatibility | Experimental Compatibility | Compatible |
Unreal Engine | Compatible | Compatible | No Compatibility |
Technical Development | C++, Python | C++, Python, C# | No Compatibility |
Ease of Use | Hard to Use | Hard to Use | Easy to use |
Type of Application | Desktop | Desktop | Virtual Reality |
Target Audience | Mainly Programmers or Engineers | Mainly Programmers or Engineers | Academia Audience |
Graphics | High | High | Average |
Pedestrian Point of View | No Pedestrian POV | No Pedestrian POV | Pedestrian POV |
Scenario | Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | Q6 | Q7 | Q8 | Q9 | Q10 | Q11 | Q12 | Q13 | S1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Intake (n = 89) | ||||||||||||||
1 (n = 78) | ||||||||||||||
2 (n = 67) | ||||||||||||||
3 (n = 62) |
Question | Low (Text) | High (Text) | |
---|---|---|---|
Q1 | In general, I trust humans | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
Q2 | In general, I trust human drivers | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
Q3 | As a pedestrian, I trust human drivers to stop for me when I cross the road | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
Q4 | In general, I trust technology | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
Q5 | In general, I trust automated vehicles | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
Q6 | As a pedestrian, I trust automated vehicles to stop for me when I cross the road | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
Q7 | Knowing that a vehicle near me is automated makes me | 1 (Very Uncomfortable) | 5 (Very Comfortable) |
Q8 | Knowing that an automated vehicle “sees me” makes me | 1 (Feel Very Unsafe) | 5 (Feel Very Safe) |
Q9 | When crossing the road, I felt safe | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
Q10 | Successfully crossing the road made me feel very confident | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
Q11 | I believe I can tell which cars are automated and which are human driven | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
Q12 | I was more likely to walk in front of oncoming automated vehicles than human-operated vehicles | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
Q13 | I am more comfortable around a vehicle I KNOW is automated than one I THINK is automated | 1 (Strongly Disagree) | 5 (Strongly Agree) |
S1 | Game Score (points) | 0 | ≈2000 |
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Pappas, G.; Siegel, J.E.; Kassens-Noor, E.; Rutkowski, J.; Politopoulos, K.; Zorpas, A.A. Game-Based Simulation and Study of Pedestrian-Automated Vehicle Interactions. Automation 2022, 3, 315-336. https://doi.org/10.3390/automation3030017
Pappas G, Siegel JE, Kassens-Noor E, Rutkowski J, Politopoulos K, Zorpas AA. Game-Based Simulation and Study of Pedestrian-Automated Vehicle Interactions. Automation. 2022; 3(3):315-336. https://doi.org/10.3390/automation3030017
Chicago/Turabian StylePappas, Georgios, Joshua E. Siegel, Eva Kassens-Noor, Jacob Rutkowski, Konstantinos Politopoulos, and Antonis A. Zorpas. 2022. "Game-Based Simulation and Study of Pedestrian-Automated Vehicle Interactions" Automation 3, no. 3: 315-336. https://doi.org/10.3390/automation3030017