Towards Net-Zero: Comparative Analysis of Hydrogen Infrastructure Development in USA, Canada, Singapore, and Sri Lanka

Abstract

This paper compares national hydrogen (H₂) infrastructure plans in Canada, the United States (the USA), Singapore, and Sri Lanka, four countries with varying geographic and economic outlooks but shared targets for reaching net-zero emissions by 2050. It examines how each country approaches hydrogen production, pipeline infrastructure, policy incentives, and international collaboration. Canada focuses on large-scale hydrogen production utilizing natural resources and retrofitted natural gas pipelines supplemented by carbon capture technology. The USA promotes regional hydrogen hubs with federal investment and intersectoral collaboration. Singapore suggests an innovation-based, import-dominant strategy featuring hydrogen-compatible infrastructure in a land-constrained region. Sri Lanka maintains an import-facilitated, pilot-scale model facilitated by donor funding and foreign collaboration. This study identifies common challenges such as hydrogen embrittlement, leakages, and infrastructure scalability, as well as fundamental differences based on local conditions. Based on these findings, strategic frameworks are proposed, including scalability, adaptability, partnership, policy architecture, digitalization, and equity. The findings highlight the importance of localized hydrogen solutions, supported by strong international cooperation and international partnerships.

1. Introduction

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction has been given priority as a decarbonization solution for the world to prevent climate change. Hydrogen is a green and versatile energy carrier with great potential to replace fossil fuels in power generation, transport, and industry. As it was recognized to play a role in the net-zero shift, countries around the world have been investing in hydrogen infrastructure as part of the essential elements of their energy transition strategies [1].

This paper examines hydrogen infrastructure plans in four selected nations: the USA, Canada, Singapore, and Sri Lanka. The USA and Canada represent advanced industrial nations with strong policy frameworks, infrastructure, and investment in hydrogen [2]. Singapore and Sri Lanka offer insight into smaller or developing Asian economies with contrasting public challenges and innovation pathways. This well-balanced mix covers a research gap by incorporating minority Asian perspectives, allowing a more diverse comparative picture of global hydrogen development.

Singapore, as a technologically advanced and highly developed city-state, is land-constrained and lacks domestic renewable energy capacity at scale. Its hydrogen plan hinges on reliance on imports, foreign technology cooperation, and regional integration in a bid to decarbonize energy-intensive industry [3]. Sri Lanka is the perspective of a developing country with abundant renewable resources, predominantly solar energy and hydropower, but with weak institutional readiness and infrastructure readiness [4,5]. Its vision to follow a green hydrogen path is led by goals of energy security, fossil fuel substitutability, and long-term sustainability. But it faces significant challenges in finance, policy coordination, and technology preparedness. These four countries, two industrialized countries and two countries of the Global South, were selected in order to allow for comparative research on hydrogen infrastructure development across different geographical, economic, and policy environments. This wider scope allows the study to recognize not only the best practice in established economies but also the major needs and strategies of new hydrogen entrants, which will require international support to realize their best roles within a net-zero world.

Large and rich in natural resources, the USA and Canada are uniquely positioned to upscale hydrogen production via both blue and green hydrogen pathways [6]. Based on earlier discourse, this section emphasizes how these nations can retrofit existing pipeline infrastructure to enable hydrogen transport [7]. As emphasized in the Global Hydrogen Review 2021, net-zero emissions by 2050 require diversified technologies and well-capable infrastructure [1]. The following article evaluates the hydrogen infrastructure plans of four countries against these goals, noting that required national strategies are tailored to local conditions and global cooperation. From this perspective, conclusions are drawn on how insightful lessons could be obtained by policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers who aim to accelerate the transition towards a sustainable hydrogen economy. This paper insists, therefore, through comparative analysis, that to address the global decarbonization challenge aimed at achieving net zero by 2050, scalable, adaptable, and collaborative solutions are required.

Efforts in Canada, Singapore, and Sri Lanka should consider the numerous lessons learned in the US, particularly in California, where hydrogen developments in transportation and electricity generation have proven to be highly informative (USDOE, 2024) [8]. Unfortunately, the costs of producing clean hydrogen (termed blue and green) compared to other methods have significantly increased in recent years, to the extent that H₂-based solutions are now needed specifically in contexts where they can be sustainable [6].

2. The Road to 2050

2.1. The USA

The USA Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap outlines a phased approach to developing a clean hydrogen economy in the country by 2050 to meet climate objectives [8]. The initial stage involves infrastructure development, the first deployment of clean hydrogen projects, and establishing regional hydrogen hubs, with target sectors being transport and industry [9]. By 2030, hydrogen production will expand to 10 million metric tons annually, leading to improvements in electrolyzes to enhance their efficiency, and the establishment of hydrogen applications in hard-to-decarbonize sectors such as refining and steelmaking, supported by improved infrastructure and new policies and regulations [10]. By 2050, the target is 50 million tons per year of hydrogen production for aviation, shipping fuel, grid energy storage, and synthetic fuels, along with increasing global hydrogen trade [8].

This plan significantly contributes to broadening the US decarbonization efforts, including the transition to renewables, transport electrification, carbon capture, and enabling policies. Hydrogen is central to reducing emissions by up to 10% by 2050, especially in regions not ideally suited for direct electrification [11]. Through a public–private partnership, the US can make hydrogen a cornerstone of its net-zero future [12].

2.2. Canada

Hydrogen holds the central position in Canada’s 2050 Net-Zero strategy energy shift. According to the Hydrogen Strategy for Canada 2020 policy framework, the strategy outlines a phased path to include hydrogen in the country’s energy mix. Short term, from 2020 to 2030, attention is laid on the building blocks of a hydrogen economy with the creation of new supply and distribution infrastructure, retrofitting natural gas pipe infrastructure for blending hydrogen, and overcoming hydrogen embrittlement. Pilot project receives priority in initial initiatives and develops hydrogen hubs across transportation, industry, and electric power generation. Canada expects to reach 10–20% of its deployment of new projects by 2030. This will then be boosted from 2030 to 2040 by purpose-built pipelines specifically for this, increased storage and distribution networks, and exports to European and the USA markets. Hydrogen will be a key enabler of sector decarbonization in the years 2030–2040, given technology developments and policy frameworks [13].

The focus will shift to efficiency gains and, most importantly, deliver clean hydrogen cost reduction, further propelling adoption in all sectors. Long term, between 2040 and 2050, Canada aims to become a world leader in the production and exportation of hydrogen, building on its rich endowment of renewable energy supplies and emerging carbon capture technologies. By achieving full decarbonization of leadership sectors and unlocking the full economic potential of hydrogen, Canada can realize the full scope of a strong hydrogen economy. It has thus put into place a hydrogen strategy that will drive early-stage innovation, mid-term scaling, and long-term global positioning, making hydrogen a critical part of Canada’s net-zero ambitions while ensuring sustainable economic growth [14].

2.3. Singapore

Singapore’s pathway to achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 is divided into defined phases, each building from the last toward a sustainable energy future. The establishment phase in the 2020s sets the ground by the Singapore Green Plan 2030, with five pillars of emphasis (1) City in Nature (2) Sustainable Living (3)Energy Reset (4) Green Economy (5) Resilient Future The phase emphasizes hydrogen-ready infrastructure development, raising solar energy capacity, low-carbon technology innovation through research and development, and implementing energy-saving in industries to reduce total energy consumption [15]. In the 2030s, there is a focus on scaling and diversification. It plans to accomplish this by increasing its solar energy fourfold, bringing in low-carbon electricity, and incorporating developed hydrogen-compatible infrastructure. Regional cooperation with surrounding countries will also facilitate cross-border trade in hydrogen and renewable energy. Advanced technologies will also be implemented, such as countering hydrogen embrittlement and enhancing pipeline durability [3].

The 2040s: Maturity and optimization, during which energy supply will be diversified, with substantial supplies of hydrogen, solar, and low-carbon imports. Efforts will be invested in retrofits and upgrading programs to improve the efficiency and hydrogen-carrying capacity of existing systems. Public-centered activities: increased awareness among the public, stakeholder participatory approaches, and diffusion of sustainable practices. Economically, Singapore plans to become a regional trading hub for hydrogen and innovative renewable energy.

By 2050, Singapore is looking forward to net-zero emissions, with more than 80% of its energy mix coming from renewable sources. Hydrogen will account for 50% of the required electricity for Singapore. The rest will be covered by solar energy and imported electricity CCS technologies to ensure carbon neutrality. The country will have a fully integrated clean energy system supportive of economic growth and environmental sustainability, thus positioning itself as a global leader in the energy transition [3].

2.4. Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka embarked on a grand vision to become a net-zero carbon economy by 2050. This vision entails increasing the level of production of renewable energy substantially, reducing coal from the energy mix over the decades, and driving the development of a green hydrogen industry. The policy not only supports international climate objectives but also aligns with the country’s national development aspirations through improved energy security and the speeding up of the decarbonization of the most critical economic sectors [5].

The vision to be mid-century carbon neutral is one of the cornerstones of the foundation of this roadmap. Here, Sri Lanka is implementing some of the GHG emission mitigation measures, primarily in the energy, transport, and industry sectors. These sectors account for the majority of the emissions of the country. One of the brightest accomplishments of this transition is to increase the share of renewable energy in the nation’s energy mix to 70% by 2030, up from 45% in 2021 [5]. Spurred on by this dream, the nation is accelerating its pace with solar, wind, and hydro infrastructure expansion. Meanwhile, the government is acting to stop the construction of coal-fired power plants, a clear step toward cleaner, more sustainable energy.

In addition to opening traditional renewables, Sri Lanka is exploring new technology, i.e., green hydrogen. With the country’s geography, i.e., abundant sunshine and wind, for example, green H₂ offers a high-potential route for long-duration energy storage, industrial-scale decarbonization of hard-to-abate sectors, and, in the future, potentially, creating a new export industry. Even though the technology of hydrogen itself is still in infancy, Sri Lanka is already contemplating pilot projects and seriously seeking collaboration with global development agencies and private sector partners to build technical capability and infrastructure for a sustainable hydrogen economy [16].

Section 3, Section 4, Section 5 and Section 6 of the paper discuss the policy and regulatory framework, technological innovations, challenges, and opportunities for the four countries. A comparative analysis of policy, technological innovation, infrastructure readiness, renewable energy potential, challenges, opportunities, and infrastructure indicators across the USA, Canada, Singapore, and Sri Lanka is summarized in

Table 1. Comparative Analysis of the Countries.

Aspect	USA	Canada	Singapore	Sri Lanka
Policy and Regulation	Strong federal investment IRA, tax credits, hydrogen hubs	National Hydrogen Strategy with a focus on clean fuels and exports	National Hydrogen Strategy; import-based approach; regional cooperation	Policy is still emerging; early-stage regulatory efforts
Technological Innovation	Advanced R&D in electrolysis, fuel cells, storage, and mobility	Focus on blue and green hydrogen; innovation in carbon capture	Innovation in liquid hydrogen and ammonia-based fuel	Limited local R&D; reliant on technology transfer and partnerships
Infrastructure Readiness	Hydrogen hubs, pipelines, and mobility networks in development	Emerging hubs, leveraging gas and electricity grids	Planning import terminals, leveraging port infrastructure	Minimal infrastructure; early-stage assessments
Renewable Energy Potential	High wind, solar, and biomass	Abundant hydro, wind, solar, and gas	Renewable Energy Potential	High wind, solar, and biomass
Challenges	Regulatory coordination, storage costs, and public acceptance	Infrastructure gaps, regional disparities	Land constraints, cost of imports, storage scalability	Financing, policy gaps, grid reliability
Opportunities	Global export hub, industrial decarbonization	Export market leadership, decarbonizing heavy industry	Regional energy hub, trading center, first world-class port infrastructure,	Green Hydrogen Export Hub for South Asia
Infrastructure Indicators	~2575 km of active H2 transmission pipelines [17]	~100 km of dedicated H2 pipelines in Alberta and Ontario [18]	No pipelines yet; import terminals under planning	No pipelines; feasibility studies ongoing.

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3. Hydrogen Development in the USA

3.1. Policy and Regulatory Framework

The USA’s policy and regulatory framework for clean hydrogen has developed rapidly since the Department of Energy (DOE) launched the “Hydrogen Shot” in 2021 to reduce the cost of hydrogen production and advance infrastructure. This group of federal programs, including the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA) and the Clean Hydrogen Production Tax Credit (45 V), has prioritized hydrogen production development and furthering its deployment across industry, transportation, and energy uses. Through 2025, DOE updates reflect a strategic move towards increasing hydrogen usage and infrastructure, supported by over $40 billion in private capital investment in Regional Clean Hydrogen Hubs (H₂Hubs). However, the current presidential administration raises concerns as early energy policies focus on developing fossil fuels and retreat from environmental protection. Although hydrogen is not on the agenda of the new administration, its potential inclusion in national energy security and resilience objectives can still be advocated for certain applications. Overall, despite the change in federal priorities, sustained DOE commitment, regulatory incentives, and strong private-sector demand form a robust policy regime, more than sufficient to drive long-term, sustained growth in the U.S. hydrogen economy [8].

3.2. Technological Innovations

The USA is investing in clean hydrogen production and deployment technology suite, with a strategic emphasis on improving efficiency, reducing GHG emissions, and reducing cost. Two technological pathways that are in favor of receiving high priority today are electrolysis and reformation of low-carbon fuels [10]. Low-carbon reforming is led by Autothermal Reforming (ATR) and Steam Methane Reforming (SMR) and is together with carbon capture and storage technology to reduce the carbon intensity of hydrogen production by an extremely large margin.

At the same time, electrolysis is being turned into a zero-carbon process for hydrogen production, especially when it is driven by renewable electricity. Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzes are probably the most sophisticated technology employed as they are readily scalable, efficient with energy, and readily deployable with intermittent, renewable energy sources such as solar and wind power [19]. Though some of the projects soon to come on stream are yet to name their preferred technology, electrolysis is one of the front-runners through which clean hydrogen is being generated at present.

Technology development is also being sought in hydrogen storage technology, i.e., geological formations like underground salt caverns, and the development of new materials that enable safe, compact, and efficient storage [20]. Such technologies are key to allowing flexibility and resilience in hydrogen systems, particularly for seasonal hydrogen storage and cross-sectoral use.

Continued federal funding for research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) is still the foundation for driving innovation in areas like carbon capture efficiency, electrolyzing technology, and integrated infrastructure networks. These are the most important technologies to a competitive, low-carbon hydrogen economy and are crucial to the USA decarbonization [21].

3.3. Challenges

Despite advancements in clean hydrogen, there are significant challenges that its extensive use faces in the USA. Of note are the production costs of hydrogen, especially green hydrogen from renewable energy through electrolysis [6]. Its production cost has yet to be competitive with conventional fuels, limiting wider market penetration. Another major challenge is the insufficient infrastructure for hydrogen end-use applications, storage, and distribution. Developing a national pipeline network, hydrogen-ready power plants, refueling stations, and storage tanks will require substantial investment and a long-term vision [21]. Furthermore, integrating hydrogen into existing energy systems, those not originally designed to be hydrogen-compatible, presents technical and regulatory barriers, including security standards, refurbishment needs, and compatibility issues with natural gas infrastructure [7]. Policy and regulatory loopholes also pose obstacles. The absence of a national carbon price solution, along with competing state-level policies, creates a challenging environment that makes it difficult for investors to gain clarity and impedes the scaling of hydrogen technologies. Federal programs and tax credits have been suggested, but more regulatory certainty and longer-term market signals are needed to advance private sector investment [22]. Additionally, deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies, which are necessary to produce low-carbon hydrogen from fossil fuels, is still in the early stages. Understanding public concerns with safety, environmental risk, and industrial use contributes to the challenge of public acceptability, therefore making it difficult to expand the hydrogen economy [19].

3.4. Opportunities

Hydrogen is abundant in the USA energy transition potential as a clean, multi-purpose fuel that can decarbonize hard-to-electrify industries. Its most significant potential use lies in heavy industry and transportation, wherein hydrogen may replace fossil fuels in trucking long distances, shipping, aviation, steel production, and chemical processing [10]. These applications can substantially reduce GHG emissions and help the country meet its national climate goals.

One of the initial options is that hydrogen may be mixed with natural gas and supplied to existing pipelines and gas-fired power plants [23]. This exploits incremental integration into the current infrastructure base, reducing emissions as well as the cost of constructing new distribution systems. While this is being undertaken, improvements in car-bon capture and storage (CCS) technologies can make further use of fossil fuel-based hydrogen production cleaner and more sustainable as a bridge technology until green hydrogen production is developed at scale. Having a national carbon price policy and phasing out fossil fuel subsidies would make the economy competitive with hydrogen, but also send stronger market signals toward investment in clean energy technology and thereby level the playing field with conventional fuels and accelerate adoption [11]. Hydrogen also possesses strategic value in terms of energy security and resilience. It can also serve as a method of long-duration energy storage, leveling out irregular renewable energy supplies such as wind and solar, and providing grid stability in times of high demand or supply shortages [21]. Furthermore, establishing a national hydrogen industry could potentially reduce dependence on foreign fossil fuels and position the U.S. as a leader in clean energy technology and exports [12].

4. Hydrogen Pipeline Development in Canada

4.1. Policy and Regulatory Framework

In developing its future energy plan, Canada has set hydrogen through the Hydrogen Strategy for Canada 2020 to create pathways to produce, transport, and use hydrogen in realizing its ambitious goal of net-zero emissions by 2050 [13]. As the strategy also highlights, infrastructure related to the process of transporting hydrogen, specifically pipelines, plays a crucial role in creating a means forward to place hydrogen in the energy landscape.

Central in this regard is the federal government for funding research, pilot projects, and infrastructure development, with programs from Natural Resources Canada and the Canada Infrastructure Bank [24]. Provincial governments have pursued region-specific policies and corresponding funding mechanisms unique to the varied energy landscapes. For example, Alberta has advanced hydrogen development due to an extensive natural gas infrastructure base. That province has led through the Alberta Hydrogen Roadmap, which prioritizes the system of hydrogen production and transport [25]. Similarly, other provinces like British Columbia and Ontario develop public–private partnerships in these technologies [13].

Regulatory frameworks are changing to ensure that hydrogen is transported safely and efficiently. The Canadian Standards Association (CSA) is very actively developing standards for hydrogen pipelines, covering safety, material integrity, and blending requirements [7]. Canada is also adapting its policies to international norms to export hydrogen and comply with global safety and environmental standards.

4.2. Technological Innovations

Canada is leveraging both new technologies and its existing infrastructure to lower hydrogen production costs and accelerate the development of hydrogen pipelines. First, the plan involves retrofitting the current natural gas pipelines to transport hydrogen. This retrofitting is achieved by blending hydrogen into natural gas networks, a more cost-effective solution that utilizes the existing infrastructure while paving the way for pure hydrogen-carrying pipelines [23]. Extensive testing has demonstrated that hydrogen blend rates do not affect end-use appliances or the integrity of existing pipeline materials. Detailed assessments by ATCO have confirmed that hydrogen blended up to 20 percent does not impact appliances [26].

The challenges in materials, such as the hydrogen embrittlement phenomenon, whereby hydrogen weakens the structural integrity of metal, are prompting research institutions and industry stakeholders to explore advanced pipeline materials and coatings aimed at improving pipeline durability and resistance to hydrogen permeation [19]. High-strength steel alloys, composite materials, and protective linings are being tested for long-term reliability in hydrogen pipelines.

In addition to retrofitting, Canada is also investing in dedicated hydrogen pipelines. For instance, the Transition Accelerator and its industrial partners are working on establishing hydrogen corridors in regions like Alberta due to its extensive production base supported by natural gas and carbon capture technologies [27]. These dedicated pipelines are crucial for transporting pure hydrogen over longer distances, effectively connecting production hubs to demand centers [13].

4.3. Challenges

Despite Canada’s strong potential for hydrogen infrastructure development, several challenges remain.

• Canada’s huge geography presents the transport of hydrogen over long distances with significant logistical challenges. Although the majority of hydrogen production will be in provinces with ample resources like Alberta, delivery to eastern Canadian and international demand centers will necessitate lengthy pipeline systems, raising the costs of transportation [25].
• High production and infrastructure costs: Fabricating dedicated hydrogen pipelines or retrofitting existing ones requires significant investments in infrastructure. The costs of pipeline materials, construction, and safety improvements also hinder the use of this technology for long-distance transportation. Producing hydrogen through electrolysis is costly; steam reforming with carbon capture necessitates CO₂ sequestration wells and extensive permitting for construction and operation [28].
• Technological: Among the primary technical issues, the freezing of hydrogen dispensers (which disrupts vehicle filling, for instance), hydrogen embrittlement, and leakage have been significant concerns. Advancements in pipeline materials and ensuring compatibility with hydrogen are crucial for scaling up infrastructure [19].
• Public Acceptance and Safety Issue: As a result of hydrogen’s highly flammable condition, safety concerns among the primary stakeholders and part of the public exist. Building public trust and securing support will depend on transparency of communication, adhering to rigorous safety protocols, and stringent regulation [19].

4.4. Opportunities

The vast energy infrastructure and rich natural resources of Canada create significant opportunities for hydrogen pipeline development. Among the most important strategies will be retrofitting the country’s extensive natural gas pipeline network to transport hydrogen [23]. This is a cost-effective solution for scaling up hydrogen infrastructure, with the added benefit of blending hydrogen into natural gas pipelines for incremental adoption and immediate emissions reductions. Additionally, Canada’s geography and its huge hydrogen production capability make it the number one possible hydrogen exporter to the global market, particularly to Europe and the USA Pipelined or liquid hydrogen shipped through tankers can drive economic growth and make Canada the forefront in the new hydrogen economy [28]. Another part of the Canadian strategy is to have close cooperation with industry collaborators to foster hydrogen technology development and deployment. Government-industry research organization partnerships-enabled through initiatives like the Clean Resource Innovation Network and Transition Accelerator, are dismantling the technical, economic, and regulatory barriers for hydrogen adoption [13,27].

Furthermore, it would position Canada well for hydrogen pipeline development due to its natural resource base, existing infrastructure, and robust policy regimes. Although challenges remain to be addressed, as presented by geography, costly infrastructure, and public acceptance, opportunities are also apparent regarding retrofitting pipelines, hydrogen export, and collaboration on innovation, offering a clear path forward towards global leadership in developing a sustainable hydrogen economy [2].

5. Hydrogen Infrastructure Development in Singapore

5.1. Policy and Regulatory Framework

The National Hydrogen Strategy is one of the key pillars of the Singapore Green Plan 2030, which supports Hydrogen infrastructure development [15]. This is Singapore’s commitment to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 under its unique constraints of limited land and dependence on energy imports [29]. The development of hydrogen-ready infrastructure, including power plants, storage facilities, and pipelines, forms the core of the strategy in support of hydrogen imports, local distribution, and future energy needs.

The government of Singapore has made a policy that is centered on securing investment, partnership for importing low-carbon hydrogen, and developing infrastructure to drive such a shift [3]. Safety, dependability, and financial sustainability are provided by regulatory measures. The policy’s long-term strategic goal is to diversify Singapore’s energy mix, bolster its energy security, and minimize environmental impact [15].

5.2. Technological Innovations

Technological developments are at the core of Singapore’s hydrogen infrastructure, enabling it to overcome various challenges in its journey of energy transition. A hydrogen-ready power plant and storage system are the main priorities, and as such, investments are being made in facilities that can utilize hydrogen as a fuel [3]. Innovative storage solutions, such as liquid hydrogen and ammonia-based systems, are under exploration to meet the volumetric challenges with hydrogen [6].

Singapore is also leveraging international partnerships to secure low-carbon hydrogen imports. The Green Hydrogen Supply Chain demonstrates Singapore’s determination to promote global hydrogen trade and nurture innovation in hydrogen infrastructure. Singapore wants to lessen its present overdependence on natural gas-constituting more than 95% of the generation for electricity, toward a cleaner and more resilient energy future [3].

There are two main paths:

• for fuel cell use, where electricity is generated from electrochemical reactions (more expensive, require high-purity hydrogen, and take more land). A good decarbonization option, but it cannot be deployed until design and technology evolve.
• can be combusted in gas turbines

On the other hand, Combined Cycle Gas Turbines (CCGTs) can blend up to 30–50% volume of hydrogen. The manufacturers are currently making 100% H₂-compatible, which is expected to be completed in the next few years [3].

5.3. Challenges

In developing the hydrogen infrastructure, some key challenges might affect Singapore’s ambitious targets. Land availability is very limited in the country, and thus, it will be difficult to construct big hydrogen production facilities, including large electrolyzes and storage terminals [3]. The country must depend on compact infrastructure and imports, which also raises energy security risks given geopolitical uncertainties and potential supply chain disruptions [29]. Given the nascent hydrogen supply chain, Singapore government does not plan to build a large infrastructure structure of hydrogen in the near term. Furthermore, the immaturity of hydrogen transport systems presents an additional technological challenge, and skilled workforces are needed due to the anticipated growth in hydrogen usage and appliances. These issues must be addressed through a strategic, innovative, and collaborative approach on a global scale [29].

5.4. Opportunities

Singapore’s geographical location and culture of innovation are a blessing, particularly to help meet some of the developmental hurdles of creating hydrogen infrastructure. Situated geographically in Southeast Asia, Singapore can emerge as a regional energy hub for the import, storage, and transmission of hydrogen [29]. Leveraging its first world-class port infrastructure, Singapore can provide cross-border transactions in hydrogen across its immediate neighbors and further afield [3]. Singapore has focused on investing in advanced technologies for the development of compact and efficient hydrogen transport systems, comprising modular storage solutions, underground pipelines, and ammonia-based hydrogen carriers, because of its land constraints [6]. Singapore is also creating cross-border collaborations with regional neighbors such as Indonesia and Malaysia to build regional hydrogen infrastructure, such as cross-linked pipelines. With innovation, strategic partnerships, and policy frameworks that are effective, Singapore will most certainly be at the cutting edge of hydrogen infrastructure development [3].

6. Transition Green by Hydrogen in Sri Lanka

6.1. Policy and Regulatory Framework

Sri Lanka is gradually establishing an enabling policy framework for hydrogen by collaborating with international leaders to adopt best practices and align its regulatory regime accordingly [16]. The government is also working to introduce open procurement regimes and international cooperation arrangements to attract investment and facilitate the future export of hydrogen technology [30]. Although the country recognizes the significance of renewable energy, including hydrogen, it currently lacks a solid and consistent policy foundation to realize its potential fully [5]. Specifically, there are no clear policy instruments or any defined carbon-reduction targets, along with various factors that impede the development of hydrogen technology [4]. To promote the establishment of an economic and sustainable hydrogen economy, Sri Lanka will need to place at the forefront the creation of a master plan in terms of energy security, finance, and technological innovation [31]. Uncertainty in regulation and measurable decarbonization targets will drive investment into the country while pushing its transition into a low-carbon economy [5].

6.2. Technological Innovations

Sri Lanka is starting to target hydrogen as part of its future clean energy strategy; to develop he required technology and infrastructure [16]. The country plans to develop and acquire essential equipment such as electrolyzes, hydrogen storage tanks, and transportation networks to effectively meet future hydrogen demand [31]. As part of the feasibility analysis for hydrogen applications and building trust, pilot plants are being implemented to trial and demonstrate the technical and economic viability of hydrogen technology [30]. One of the most promising fields being researched is the application of excess wind power for generating green hydrogen through electrolysis, which separates water into oxygen (O₂) and hydrogen using renewable energy [5]. Green hydrogen also offers several tangible advantages, such as fueling hydrogen fuel vehicles and serving as a clean energy substitute for natural gas in residential heating. Despite these advances, some difficulties remain. Perhaps the most crucial hurdle to clean hydrogen implementation is the lack of quality control in existing renewable programs, which could hinder the successful adoption of new technology [4]. That said, there is increasing emphasis on hydrogen as an emerging, strategic technology in both Sri Lanka’s energy sector and transportation. Innovative technology and further advancements are necessary to make hydrogen an effective and affordable solution on a broader scale [6].

6.3. Challenges

Sri Lanka faces many challenges to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050 in its hydrogen economy and overall shift towards renewable energy [4]. Most are the absence of a clear and stable regulatory framework governing the development of hydrogen [31]. This regulatory gap discourages private sector investment and hinders the establishment of a bankable investment environment needed to attract local and foreign capital. The country’s history of relying on fossil fuels is still causing some difficulties, with some government policies still inclined towards investment in non-renewable energy sources [5]. Such a lack of consistency deters the switch to clean energy technology and creates policy uncertainty. Moreover, poor coordination among principal government agencies contributes to inefficiency in actions as well as planning for the development of renewable energy [4]. Sri Lanka is also very dependent on foreign technology and equipment imports for its hydrogen plants, which leaves limited scope for local capacity development and knowledge transfer. There are also technological limitations as hydrogen technologies are novel in the nation [5]. Pilot projects and field tests are non-existent, generating doubts regarding feasibility and scalability [31]. The lack of reliable data regarding energy resources, particularly wind, solar, and wave energy, also hinders project planning and risk evaluation [4]. Further, a successful, sustainable transition to hydrogen will require Sri Lanka to overcome vital risks, render it cost-effective, and enhance energy security through reduced dependency on imported fossil fuels [6]. Without strategic investments, global collaboration, and robust institutional foundations, the country’s ability to meet its net-zero goals will be threatened [16].

6.4. Opportunities

The shift towards hydrogen energy can enable the nation to achieve the target of net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 [5]. Green production of hydrogen holds great economic promise [10]. With the replacement of fossil fuel imports and coal, Sri Lanka can save billions of rupees in the long term on energy expenditure [4]. Such a shift positions Sri Lanka’s energy production policy in line with the world’s transition to green energy, opening opportunities for foreign direct investment (FDI), exporting technology, and inter-country cooperation [31]. In addition to reducing costs and increasing investments, the hydrogen economy also offers employment opportunities and promotes local industrialization, especially in producing electrolyzes hardware, storage systems, and transportation infrastructure for hydrogen [16]. These options hold the promise of creating local innovation and building technical capabilities along the energy value chain [4]. Hydrogen will contribute, but a small amount, some 3%, to power generation by 2050 in the country [32]. Its role in decarbonizing transport, industry, and heavy logistics, however, will be pivotal. By including hydrogen in its transition towards clean energy, Sri Lanka will be able to move away from conventional energy forms and foster more sustainable and equitable economic growth [4].

7. Proposed Strategic Framework for Global Hydrogen Infrastructure Development

With hydrogen as a cornerstone in global clean energy transitions, an innovative framework is critical to guide its scalable, flexible, and collaborative deployment in varied contexts. Six interrelated pillars essential for hydrogen infrastructure development are outlined below from the lessons of experience in the USA, Canada, Singapore, and Sri Lanka: Scalability, Adaptability, International and Regional Cooperation, Policy Architecture and Mobilization of Investments, Digitalization and Knowledge Transfer, and Equity and Just Transition.

7.1. Scalable Deployment Models

The USA’s federally backed hydrogen hubs worked well due to strong investment and industrial synergies, though aligning state-level needs remains a challenge [22]. Canada’s use of existing gas infrastructure proved scalable, but pipeline retrofitting faces material integrity issues. Singapore’s import-reliant model worked within space constraints, though dependence on foreign supply raises resilience concerns [3]. Sri Lanka’s pilot-scale initiatives have shown promise in aligning with climate goals, but a lack of local infrastructure limits their rapid scaling [16].

7.2. Adaptive Infrastructure and Policy Design

The USA succeeded by tailoring hydrogen pathways to regional resource availability, yet regulatory fragmentation hinders full coordination [8]. Canada’s adaptation of existing infrastructure capitalized on its natural resources, but regional implementation varies in pace. Singapore’s innovation-centric approach efficiently addressed spatial limits, though long-term scalability remains uncertain [3]. Sri Lanka’s climate-aligned planning fits local conditions, but weak institutional capacity slows execution [4].

7.3. International and Regional Collaboration

The USA’s leadership in global hydrogen forums successfully positioned it as a key player in hydrogen trade, though export infrastructure is still developing [9]. Canada’s bilateral and multilateral collaborations strengthened its export readiness, with high potential for global impact. Singapore’s regional partnerships accelerated project planning, but differences in regional regulation may delay implementation [29]. Sri Lanka’s reliance on international aid brought technical guidance, yet financing gaps and institutional bottlenecks hinder progress [30].

7.4. Policy Architecture and Investment Mobilization

The USA’s clear federal strategy and funding support accelerated project launches, though interagency coordination remains a challenge [22]. Canada’s cross-government framework encouraged private investment, but fragmented provincial policies created uneven development [24]. Singapore’s innovation-focused policies fostered R&D, though scale-up to commercialization is still limited [15]. Sri Lanka’s early policy efforts helped attract foreign support, but weak domestic regulation and investment structures slowed momentum [4].

7.5. Digitalization and Knowledge Sharing

In the USA, digital twins and modeling tools have significantly enhanced project planning and cost optimization [32]. Canada’s data-driven pipeline monitoring systems improved hydrogen blending safety, although integration is still partial [23]. Singapore’s smart energy systems supported efficient planning and regional coordination, but broader application to hydrogen deployment is emerging [32]. Sri Lanka’s use of digital platforms in pilot projects supported early feasibility work, yet digital capacity remains limited [4].

7.6. Equity and Just Transition

The USA’s mandated community benefits plans ensured job creation in underserved areas, though measuring long-term social impact remains difficult [22]. Canada’s engagement with Indigenous groups facilitated inclusive planning, though project ownership remains limited [13]. Singapore’s urban energy equity efforts improved access, but affordability for hydrogen energy remains a concern [3]. Sri Lanka’s rural electrification and training initiatives showed positive social potential, yet sustained funding and capacity are still required [4].

8. Conclusions

This report offers a cross-country comparison of hydrogen infrastructure plans in four countries, Canada, the USA, Singapore, and Sri Lanka, with varying geographic, economic, and policy settings. This report pinpoints the diversity of national hydrogen strategies: from Canada and the USA’s large-scale hydrogen hubs and repurposed pipelines to Singapore and Sri Lanka’s tech- and import-focused approaches [3,9,31].

While both the USA and Canada have high infrastructure and policy stability, their paths in federal versus provincial coordination and combinations of technology are distinct. Singapore’s emphasis on digitalization, regional cooperation, and hydrogen preparedness diverges from Sri Lanka’s incremental, donor-subsidized efforts at setting baseline capacity. These cases indicate that hydrogen transitions are not only contingent upon technical readiness but also upon governance structures and regional milieus [29].

The lesson learned is that no single hydrogen strategy fits all. Instead, each country must tailor its strategy to domestic assets, institutional capacity, and energy needs. But all four countries have common issues—infrastructure retrofitting, hydrogen embrittlement, and economics—that are dependent on international cooperation [23].

To enhance the deployment of hydrogen, this study recommends enhancing public–private partnerships, with special emphasis on material innovation for safe use of pipelines, as well as constructing regional corridors of hydrogen trade. Investment in digital infrastructure and coordination across borders will also be central in establishing a networked and balanced hydrogen economy worldwide [23].

More broadly, the comparative approach taken here has several valuable lessons for policymakers and stakeholders as a whole: hydrogen infrastructure will have to be local context-tailored, flexible, accessible, and scalable. Global decarbonization will only work if country plans are linked by multilateral coordination and learning exchange, without any one nation falling behind in clean energy transition [8].