Two-Dimensional Materials: From Discovery to Application in Membrane Distillation/Crystallization Processes
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Advent of 2D Materials
1.1.1. Graphene
1.1.2. Transition Metal Dichalcogenides
1.2. Exfoliation of 2D Materials
2. Preparation of Membranes Functionalized with 2D Materials
- (a)
- Lithographic technique is proposed especially for creating polymeric surfaces with a regular structure and a precise geometric order. The main feature of lithography is the mechanical reproduction of certain images. At the nanometer level (lateral size between the size of a single atom and about 100 nm), lithography can be used in the fabrication of advanced semiconductor integrated circuits or nano electromechanical systems (NEMS). Lithography can also be performed using a support [110] on which the polymer solution is placed, making the final product exhibit certain structures and properties. Patterns are created with mechanical deformation of the impression strength and subsequent processes. The main disadvantages of this process are the high cost of making molds with dimensions of the nano order and the difficulty in obtaining a large resolution. On a larger scale, the creation of well-made surfaces turns out to be more efficient and easier.
- (b)
- Phase separation micro-molding (PSμM) is a highly specialized manufacturing process that produces extremely small, high-precision thermoplastic parts and components with micron tolerances [111]. The process begins in a tooling department where a mold is created that has a cavity shaped like the desired part. Thermoplastic or resin is rapidly injected into the cavity, creating the component or part at high speed. The combination of micro-molding and phase separation techniques is another approach to create nanostructures with hierarchical ordered morphology. It can be seen as an evolution of the traditional phase reversal. A polymer is precipitated from a solution assuming a desired configuration similar to traditional phase inversion. The final configuration can be flat, cylindrical or spherical. The solidification process begins with the transition from a liquid to two liquid phases: one rich in polymer, the other rich in solvent. The first solidifies forming a solid network; the second generates pores or voids in the matrix [112].
- (c)
- Colloidal templates use polymeric nanocapsules composed of a shell or membrane, which is mechanically very strong and separates the internal cavity from the outside medium, thus creating a barrier for various substances that can be encapsulated therein [113]. Scientists found that monodisperse colloidal spheres can self-assemble into arrays of periodic spheres, called colloidal crystals, in a hexagonal arrangement under well-controlled experimental conditions using drop coating, spin coating, dip coating, electrophoretic deposition and self-assembly at the liquid/gas interface. Moreover, in the large hollow spaces, substances such as drugs and biomolecules can be encapsulated and released in a controlled manner, which make the polymeric nanocapsules attractive devices for drug delivery, cancer and gene therapy, protecting enzymes, etc. [114]. The synthesis of monodisperse colloidal spheres offers an opportunity to extend their applications. Membranes with morphological features of high structural order at the nanometric scale may be achieved according to the colloidal template method. Colloid crystalline particles are three-dimensional close-packed crystals of sub-micrometer spheres working as imprinting agents, whose long-ranged ordered structure is replicated in a solid matrix, thus yielding materials with ordered pores. Colloidal crystal structures with this ordered architecture are of great interest for tissue engineering wherein the availability of arrays for cellular proliferation is requested to promote the optimum environment for a good adhesion and consequent cells proliferation [115].
- (d)
- Self-assembly copolymers exploit the ability of some materials to spontaneously form ordered aggregates [116]. This allows to obtain nanostructures, even complex ones, depending on the intrinsic structure and chemistry of the molecules involved. The components most present in these types of assemblies are as follows:
- Lipids, proteins, carbohydrates and nucleic acids;
- Molecular crystals;
- Liquid crystals;
- Semi-crystalline and separate phase polymers.
- -
- The use of block polymers which give rise to a cylindrical morphology;
- -
- The use of a block polymer with a bi-continuous morphology which obviates the need for alignment [117].
- (e)
- Breath figure (BF) for bio-inspired high-defined membranes has been developed in the context of bio, innovative and bio processes in the preparation of micro-porous membranes [118]. This technique allows to obtain membranes with ordered pore geometry. The basic idea for using BF has been developed from the observation of the common phenomenon of fog formation which originates when water vapor comes into contact with a cold surface. During this event, the condensed water droplets tend to rearrange themselves into an ordered geometry that resembles honeycomb patterns. The condensation of water droplets on the surface of dilute polymeric solutions containing immiscible or partially miscible solvents also allows for an easier recovery of the solvent at the end of the process. Furthermore, water is a widely available non-toxic templating agent, so the general approach can be considered as an environmentally friendly production technology. Despite the simplicity with which droplets can be formed, the mechanism that controls the formation of BF geometry can be very complex and not perfectly unique. This may depend on the polymeric materials and solvents used, but also on changes in the surrounding experimental conditions, which make the management of water droplet dynamics somewhat difficult [119].
- (f)
- Deposition for filtration is one of the most common and effective deposition methods. The vertical downtown force, supplied with pressure/vacuum filtration, drives the 2D nanosheets group in a layered interlocking structure on the substrate. The thickness is provided by the membrane that is supported, though it can slightly vary with deposition. Furthermore, other ions, molecules or nanoparticles can be easily mixed and interspersed in the strikers, providing additional flexibility on the tuning of the membrane structure [120].
- (g)
- Coating: Coating is the creation of a thin layer on the surface of the membrane. Various coating methods have been reported to assemble 2D nanosheets on membranes, including drop coating, sterile coating, spin coating and casting, etc. The success of a uniform coating is based on the smoothness of the substrate, the surface tension of the coating solutions, as well as the process of evaporation applied. Among the methods, spin coating could provide centrifugal and cutting forces to control the assembly of nanosheets, producing a well-interloped ordered laminated structure. At present, this technique is also applied to prepare highly ordered labeled membranes [79,121].
- (h)
- Layer-by-layer self-assembly (LBL) refers to the deposition process of different materials on the surface of the substrate. This approach is mainly based on the interactions between adjacent layers, including electrostatic bonding, hydrogen or even covalent interactions. The LBL method can accurately check the thickness of the selective layer by varying the number of deposition cycles and is useful for introducing the intercalary stabilization forces. Therefore, the resulting membranes can remain stable in aqueous or organic media. However, the implementation of this method requires the presence of material interactions and the preparation process takes time [122,123].
- (i)
- Honeycomb membranes possess a specific distribution of the pores on the surface of the partition walls and an enlarged porosity in addition to subtle dividing walls of a prescribed value. The preparation of these particular structures is based on the preparation of lithographic precision membranes according to a BF biospirated process [119]. The condensation waterdrops act as the imprinting agents on the polymer surface and with the balance between solvent evaporation and humid air condensation in a 3D construction, bee nest membranes can be obtained in a single pass. After condensation, the dripping water drills grow and self-assemble in ordered arrays, producing a highly defined hexagonal geometry as a result of their imprinting action, different from what is observed for the separation techniques of conventional phases. The main limitation is using this process to produce commercially large-scale films is the lack of control over the long-range structural order through the surface of the films created [124].
3. Application of 2D Materials in Membrane Distillation
3.1. Graphene in Membrane Distillation
3.2. TMDC in Membrane Processes
3.3. MXenes in Membrane Processes
3.4. Silica Nanoparticles and MOFs in Membrane Processes
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Reduction of Graphene Oxide | Chemical Vapor Deposition | Liquid-Phase Exfoliation | Synthesis on SiC | Mechanical Exfoliation | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Quality | Low | High | High | High | High |
Cost aspect | Average | None | Average | None | Average |
Scalability | High | Average | High | Low | None |
Purity | Low | Average | Average | Average | Average |
Yield | High | Low | Low | Low | Low |
Membrane | Feed | Feed/Perm Temp (°C) | Porosity (%) | Thickness (μm) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PVDF | 0.6 M NaCl | 50/20 | 41.5 | 138.1 | [130] |
PVDF + Non-woven | 0.6 M NaCl | 50/20 | 49.16 | 207.3 | [130] |
PVDF-f | 0.5 M NaCl | 70/20 | n.a. | 19.6 | [131] |
2% GO-PSF | 0.6 M NaCl | 90/20 | 26.6 | 26 | [132] |
GO-PVP/PVDF | 0.6 M NaCl | 65/20 | n.a. | 56.5 | [133] |
GP2 (0.16%) | 0.6 M NaCl | 85 | 56 | n.a. | [134] |
rGO/PVDF-HFP | 0.6 M NaCl | 75/25 | 75 | n.a. | [135] |
PVDF/Graphene 0.87 wt% | 0.6 M NaCl | 75/20 | 73.8 | 390 | [136] |
PTFE | 0.6 M NaCl | 70/20 | 70 | 35 | [137] |
PTFE-PVDF GOIM | 0.6 M NaCl | 70/20 | 70 | 35 | [138] |
PSF | 0.6 M NaCl | 90/20 | 55.9 | 34 | [132] |
PSF-GO 1% | 0.6 M NaCl | 90/20 | 48.4 | 30 | [132] |
PES-LIG25 | 0.6 M NaCl | 25/20 | 75 | 185 | [138] |
GO-PTFE | 0.6 M NaCl | 60/20 | 80 | 50 | [137] |
PTFE-GO | 34,000 ppm NaCl | 80/20 | 70 | 35 | [34] |
PP on PTFE-GO | 10,000 ppm NaCl | 80/18 | 70 | 129 | [3] |
PVDF-HFP-rGO | 0.6 M NaCl | 75/25 | 76 | 390 | [138] |
PVDF-rGO and GO | 0.6 M NaCl | 65/20 | n.a. | n.a. | [139] |
PVDF-NBA-GO | 0.6 M NaCl | 80/20 | n.a. | n.a. | [140] |
PSF-GO | 2.5 wt% NaCl | 90/20 | 30 | 49 | [141] |
PVDF-PES-GNPs 2 wt% | 10,000 ppm NaCl | 65 | 88 | 142 | [142] |
PTFE-G | n.a. | 40/20 | n.a. | 240 | [143] |
PVDF-PDA-GO(70 °C) | 1000 ppm NaCl | 60/20 | n.a. | n.a. | [144] |
Ni-Nafion-rGO | 5 g/L NaCl | 60 | 95 | n.a. | [145] |
Membrane | Tfeed [°C] | Flow Rate [mLmin−1] | Flux [Lm−2h−1] | Rejection [%] | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PVDF-HFP/AlFu-2 | 50 | 500 | 22.7 | 99.9 | [166] |
PVDF-HFP/AlFu-0.1 | 50 | 500 | 17.0 | 99.9 | [166] |
PVDF | 48 | 1500 | 1.83 | 99.98 | [167] |
MOF/PVDF (PV-5) | 48 | 1500 | 3.26 | 99.98 | [167] |
Pristine PTFE | 50 | 500 | 43.5 | 99.9 | [168] |
PTFE-PS/AlFu MOF | 50 | 500 | 45.1 | 99.9 | [168] |
1% AlFu MOF/PVDF | 50 | 450 | 8.04 | 99.9 | [169] |
1% AlFu MOF/PVDF | 70 | 450 | 15.64 | 99.9 | [169] |
PVDFLANM | 45 | 100 | 11.7 | 99.99 | [170] |
Membranes | Feed | Feed Flow Rate [L/h] | Temperature Feed [°C] | Lower CV [%] | Flux [Lm−2h−1] | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PVDF/Bi2Se3 | 5M NaCl | 6 | 21.96 | 36 | 3.6 | [56] |
PVDF–GP 0.5 | 5M NaCl | 15 | 36.5 | 32.2 | 3.8 | [171] |
PVDF–GP 5 | 5M NaCl | 15 | 36.5 | 26.7 | 6 | |
PVDF–GP10 | 5M NaCl | 15 | 36.5 | 35.8 | 5.5 | |
PVDF/G 0.5% | 5M NaCl | 15 | 42 | 27.5 | 2.7 | [108] |
PVDF/BT 0.5% | 5M NaCl | 15 | 42 | 43 | 2.7 | |
PVDF/BT 7% | 5M NaCl | 15 | 42 | 29.5 | 3.9 | |
PVDF 3D-G | 5.3M NaCl | 0.6 | 40 | 27 | 0.77 | [173] |
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Frappa, M.; Alessandro, F.; Macedonio, F.; Drioli, E. Two-Dimensional Materials: From Discovery to Application in Membrane Distillation/Crystallization Processes. Chemistry 2023, 5, 2205-2228. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemistry5040148
Frappa M, Alessandro F, Macedonio F, Drioli E. Two-Dimensional Materials: From Discovery to Application in Membrane Distillation/Crystallization Processes. Chemistry. 2023; 5(4):2205-2228. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemistry5040148
Chicago/Turabian StyleFrappa, Mirko, Francesca Alessandro, Francesca Macedonio, and Enrico Drioli. 2023. "Two-Dimensional Materials: From Discovery to Application in Membrane Distillation/Crystallization Processes" Chemistry 5, no. 4: 2205-2228. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemistry5040148