Analysis and Application of the CAUSE Model in Regional Disaster Prevention Measures

Abstract

Sediment disasters, triggered by heavy rainfall, have resulted in significant human casualties and economic damage annually worldwide. Therefore, the promotion and implementation of disaster prevention strategies have emerged as crucial measures to mitigate the human and financial losses inflicted by these disasters. This article examines case studies in the mountainous regions of China and Japan, encompassing terrain conditions, local disaster risk factors, and residents’ awareness of disaster prevention, as well as their living conditions. The CAUSE model was employed to cultivate a relationship of mutual trust and cooperation with the residents through activities that promote disaster prevention and reduction. Feedback was also collected from the residents. In addition, relevant disaster prevention personnel were organized to participate in disaster prevention technical training, and feedback was collected through questionnaires (CAUSE is an acronym derived from the first letter of Confidence, Awareness, Understanding, Satisfaction with proposed Solutions, and Enactment). From the above inspection and analysis techniques used in the case studies in China and Japan, it is confirmed that disaster prevention and promotion work is closely linked. This analysis underscores the importance, necessity, and effectiveness of promoting disaster prevention at the local level. Furthermore, it offers crucial technical support for the local government’s efforts in disaster reduction and prevention.

1. Introduction

Due to global climate change and human activities, extreme rainstorm events have become increasingly widespread and frequent. Sediment disasters caused by heavy rainfall, such as landslides, debris flows, and floods, are common hazards in hilly areas around the world. They pose serious threats to the safety of people’s lives and property. In the USA, some estimates suggest that landslides cause an average of 25–50 fatalities each year and contribute to billions of US dollars in economic losses annually [1]. In Japan, the number of deaths and missing persons was 1192 by the type of storms and flood disasters during 1994–2013 [2]. In East Asia, the landslide record is dominated by events in China (81%, 503 landslides), of which 409 landslide events were triggered during the summer monsoon rainfall season, respectively [3].

To mitigate the damage caused by rainfall-induced landslides, some researchers have studied the mechanisms of slope movement processes in detail [4,5,6], including physical countermeasures such as retaining walls, ground anchors, and dewatering systems, which are common [7,8,9]. However, while they are suitable for important positions, they are not economically feasible for the vast number of potentially unstable slopes due to their high cost and long-term construction. Therefore, as an effective and economical method, soft countermeasures are receiving the most attention. Practitioners have been trying to improve safety by developing slope monitoring and early-warning system (EWS) technologies, such as the rainfall threshold [10,11,12] and surface displacements [13,14]. These technologies aim to predict slope failure in advance based on the observed slope behavior and to mitigate the extent of the damage. The warning alarm can directly notify the relevant residents and encourage them to take evacuation actions to protect themselves. However, improving residents’ awareness of disaster management is necessary to help them understand their surrounding situation. Therefore, the realization of early evacuation and safe relocation has become an urgent issue.

Risk communication and mutual assistance help community members minimize the effects of disasters before they occur and recover more effectively afterward [15,16].

Recently, some researchers have sought to intervene through disaster prevention psychology and government mutual assistance, exploring new ways to promote disaster prevention and reduction, for example, the CAUSE model [17,18].

This study analyzes and applies the CASUSE model [19] in regional disaster prevention strategies, thereby confirming the importance, necessity, and effectiveness of the combination of self-help and mutual assistance among residents in disaster prevention strategies.

Case studies in Japan and China were conducted, and technology training and feedback were collected through a questionnaire survey. It also provides essential support for the local government’s disaster reduction and prevention work. The construction of residents’ trust relationships and the promotion of disaster prevention education have enabled residents to have a deeper understanding of sediment disasters.

2. Method

2.1. CAUSE Model

The CAUSE model is a method proposed by Katherine E. Rowan [17] from George Mason University in the United States for educating regional crisis managers on risk communication. CAUSE stands for Confidence, Awareness, Understanding, Satisfaction with proposed Solutions, and Enactment, with each letter, C, A, U, S, and E, representing the first letter of these terms in sequence. Rowan’s CAUSE model is aimed at administrative crisis managers, with S standing for Satisfaction, where residents accept the solutions proposed by the administration. Crisis managers, such as police officers or firefighters, are assumed to be in administrative roles and are responsible for communicating with the public. They need to understand the actions people take at each stage of the CAUSE model to effectively raise risk awareness, ensure comprehension, gain acceptance of the proposed solutions, and facilitate their implementation.

2.2. BECAUSE Model

The BECAUSE model has been developed as a training process to help local government practitioners communicate with organizations inside and outside the agency to facilitate disaster response [19]. The meaning of each step in C·A·U·S·E in BECAUSE differs slightly from the CAUSE model, shown in Figure 1. Additionally, BE refers to the preparation stage for training, where it is necessary to build an environment for practitioners to participate. BE also involves becoming familiar with local administration leaders, such as the governor, mayor, and senior staff.

In the BECAUSE model, S stands for “Satisfaction”, which includes the stage where local government practitioners propose their own “Solution” or a new method of disaster response.

The BECAUSE model was used to build a regional cooperation system for wide-area evacuation in 2013. It involved the following three groups: a disaster-affected municipality, neighboring municipalities providing support, and a supporting organization comprising disaster management and construction departments, prefectural police headquarters, and river administrators of the MLIT. A disaster response exercise, referred to as E, was conducted as the final step to verify the effectiveness of the regional cooperation system.

However, the wide-area evacuation dealt with during this time involved residents from one municipality evacuating to a nearby municipality [20].

2.3. Details of Actions in CAUSE Model

The targets in risk communication include practitioners (residents), the governor, the mayor, senior staff of the local administration, and experts in disaster prevention. To facilitate smooth risk communication, the actions and purposes were defined in each stage of the CAUSE model, as shown in

Table 1. The actions and purposes at each stage of the CAUSE model in this study.

Stage	Actions	Purpose
Before	Meeting	Gaining familiarity with the governor, mayor, and senior staff of the local administration.
Confidence	Workshop Introduction	Building a relationship of mutual trust with each other.
Awareness	Field survey Workshop	Finding out the risk of the surrounding geological environment. Extracting measures for the isolation of mountain villages.
Understanding	Workshop Questionnaire	Letting the residents know that they can help each other or ask for mutual assistance by using the safety confirmation system.
Solution	Training Questionnaire	Becoming skilled in using safety confirmation systems. Becoming proficient in using information and messaging on SNS platforms. Gaining the ability to confirm their safety with each other. Becoming experienced in requesting support from government offices.
Enactment	Evacuation drill Reflection meeting Questionnaire	Implementation and feasible solutions to sediment disasters.

.

Before applying the CAUSE model, preparations, such as meetings, are necessary to build an environment where practitioners can easily participate in the training. BE is also for building better relationships with the governor, mayor, and senior staff of the local administration.

In the stage of Confidence, relationships of mutual trust are built by introducing each participant to one other in the workshop.

In the Awareness stage, field surveys are conducted because they are crucial for the prevention and mitigation of sediment disasters. Through field surveys conducted by researchers and experts, accurate information about the terrain, soil composition, and potential risk areas can be provided. These surveys involve collaboration between local disaster management departments, universities, disaster-related agencies, and disaster experts. They assess the unstable situation on-site to provide expert and experience-based judgment and response during disasters. These data are essential for communities to create effective hazard maps and early-warning systems. The results of the field surveys are made into videos and slideshows, and shown in the workshop to help residents easily understand the risk conditions around them.

In the Understanding stage, disaster education at universities for students and workshops for residents deepen their understanding and awareness of the importance of disaster preparedness and response, and develop their judgment skills. The government presents solutions to public assistance challenges and ensures that students and residents comprehend them. This stage is also used to ensure that students and residents understand the importance of engaging in self-help and mutual assistance activities.

In the Solution stage, training is provided for residents and disaster management officials to understand the importance of inter-departmental collaboration and to develop problem-solving skills through judgment training based on disaster site conditions. Participants are trained to be skilled in using safety confirmation systems, to become proficient in using information and messaging on SNS platforms, to be able to confirm their safety with each other, and become experienced in requesting support from government offices.

In the Enactment stage, the effectiveness of the various stages is verified through a demonstration experiment by installing disaster monitoring systems on-site and conducting evacuation drills and disaster response exercises.

Questions corresponding to the content of some stages were prepared based on the CAUSE model. To understand the extent to which each stage of the CAUSE model was achieved through the lecture, the same questions were asked before and after the lecture. To ensure that the questions are straightforward and easily understood, thus minimizing misinterpretation, the responses should be anonymous. Allowing respondents to answer anonymously can reduce social desirability bias and encourage more honest responses. Using balanced response scales can avoid leading respondents toward a particular answer.

3. Results

3.1. Application of the CAUSE Model in Japan

Yamanashi Prefecture, Japan, is reported to have 493 sites that can be isolated at the time of a disaster. In particular, there are many steep mountains in the Kannan area of Yamanashi Prefecture, and there are many places to carry out Sabo work, and it is physically difficult to prevent the isolation of all settlements [21,22].

The survey sites are located in Hachinoshiri district, Ichikawa Misato Town, Yamanashi Prefecture. It is a mountain village and a landslide area; if a large earthquake occurs, the road may be blocked by the landslide and the village may become isolated, as shown in Figure 2.

3.1.1. Field Survey

As Site A was surveyed, the topography and geology became more apparent. The mountain is composed of tuff breccia. The valleys exhibit sharper bends compared to the ridges, making them more prone to fracturing, where fold faults were identified. Near the mountain’s summit, these fold faults have caused the bedrock to fracture and crack, accelerating the weathering process. As weathering continues, the rock gradually breaks down into soil. Since the material originated from consolidated volcanic ash, it transforms into weak mud when it absorbs water.

Near the mountain’s summit, the originally horizontal strata are now tilted at steep angles, with stratification planes (layer boundaries) also inclined sharply. These planes are highly susceptible to weathering and often become water channels, further enhancing the weathering process. Consequently, landslides occur as the surface layer above the stratification plane shifts toward the valleys. During heavy rainfall, the weathered soil becomes saturated and buoyant, while earthquakes disrupt the balance of forces. These factors contribute to large-scale landslides and debris flows, particularly during intense rain events, as shown in Figure 3a.

On the other hand, a settlement requires access to a stream to secure essential drinking water. Additionally, land suitable for building houses and arable land for farming is necessary. Most of these areas are formed by landslides or large-scale debris flows, which cause the mountain to collapse and deposit sediment, often with water flowing underground. In other words, these lands were originally shaped by sediment-related disasters and remain highly susceptible to such events in the future, particularly during heavy rains or earthquakes.

Countermeasures for settlements that can be isolated due to disasters are not only prevented from isolation but also have options, such as evacuation at home, evacuating to home, or nearby public halls without evacuating to the evacuation centers at the foot. Living in an unfamiliar shelter is particularly stressful for the elderly. By evacuating from home, it is easy to obtain supplies at home, and, if your home is not damaged, you can survive. Life is relatively safe because only people in the village are in the village. Although there are such advantages of evacuation from home, there are also issues. It is also necessary to make a request when there is a shortage of food, water, or drugs, or a request for hospital transportation for those with injuries, sudden illnesses, or chronic diseases [13].

Municipalities are promoting satellite mobile phones to settlements that can be isolated due to disasters so to secure the means of communication in the event of a disaster. Since satellite mobile phones communicate via satellites, unlike landlines and mobile phones, there is an advantage, in that the antenna is not affected. However, it must be used outdoors for satellite directions, and it is not always possible to talk during cloudy weather and rainy weather. Since satellite mobile phones are only installed in public facilities, if you want to use them, you need to go to the installation location. Therefore, it is necessary to have not only satellite mobile phones but also multiple means of communication [14].

To evacuate safely, the residents and the government must solve these issues in collaboration. In 2014, a disaster study was conducted as part of an initiative in this study that focused on risk communication using the CAUSE model. The local community and the government collaborated in the A district of the Japanese village, and a consensus on home evacuation was achieved [15].

3.1.2. The Relationship Between Isolation and the CAUSE Model

Risk communication efforts were organized using the CAUSE model, which was applied to measures in the event of the isolation of a mountain village, and the U, S, and E stages of the CAUSE model were verified.

• Agreement formation evaluation

In all of the groups, there was an agreement to select home evacuation if the conditions were met. In addition, all of the groups were able to secure communication and supplies regarding the conditions of home evacuation. Furthermore, Group I derived the condition of the construction of a safety confirmation system; moreover, it was stated that other groups needed to set up a safety confirmation system in the solution, and that the group was aware of the importance of the safety confirmation system.

2.

Achievement of A, U, S by a questionnaire

To verify whether the goals set at each stage of A, U, and S have been achieved, a questionnaire survey was conducted after the workshop, and 93% of the residents who answered the questions achieved all of the goals of A, U, and S.

3.

Construction of a safety confirmation system

Understanding: The residents underwent a briefing session and reported the contents of the previous workshops, and the residents understood the conditions for evacuation at home. The residents exchanged frank opinions, understood the safety confirmation system, and understood that they needed to work on self-help and mutual assistance issues. From the above, the validity of U was confirmed.

Solution: As a result of the discussions in each district at the group’s study group and training rehearsal, the residents established a safety confirmation system. The residents derived a new safety confirmation system in each district, taking into account the actual situation of each resident. From the above, the validity of S was confirmed.

Enactment: In the disaster prevention drill, the safety confirmation of the safety confirmation system was performed in each group as a result of conducting a video observation of the residents, as well as questionnaires and interviews. In addition, it was confirmed that 95% of the residents had performed safety confirmation from the questionnaire results. In addition, the safety of almost everyone in the district was confirmed in the training. From the above, it was confirmed that the residents had executed the “safety confirmation system” built as a solution in the training, and that the solution was valid.

4.

Securing information transmission means

Understanding: The residents underwent a briefing session and reported the contents of the previous workshops, and the residents understood the conditions for evacuation at home. Since one of the conditions was “securing information transmission means”, we introduced videophones, IP phones (smartphones), SNS, and demonstrations as new means. As a result, we were able to agree with the registration of personal information necessary for using SNS and understood the solutions that the residents proposed. From the above, the validity of U was confirmed.

Satisfaction with Proposed Solution: At the disaster prevention training rehearsal, a smartphone was distributed to each resident (IP phone), and an explanation of the operation of the IP phones was provided. In addition, the residents were convinced of the proposed solution by providing one-on-one guidance by teachers and input experiences regarding the use of SNS. Therefore, the validity of S was confirmed.

Enactment: In the disaster prevention drill, video observations of the residents, questionnaires, and interviews were conducted. The details of the evacuation drill, including the evacuation route, the meeting place, and safety confirmation, are shown in Figure 4. It was found that 57% of the residents successfully participated. The residents who played a central role in confirming their safety used communication equipment for information transmission. All of the households in the district received the information from the town through some means. This confirmed that the residents had implemented the solutions proposed by the government in acceptance and training, validating the solution’s effectiveness.

After the disaster prevention drill, a reflection meeting workshop was held. During this workshop, a questionnaire survey was conducted. Parts of the results are shown in Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7. Among the 24 residents surveyed, the age structure was diverse, including elderly residents who used videophones and smartphones, including participants in their 80s. This summary presents the results of the questionnaire regarding the confirmation of the safety confirmation system. While one resident mentioned difficulty in using the system, they were generally able to do so to some extent. In cases where mobile phones could not be used, such as in certain villages, the validity of the safety confirmation method was not always verified smoothly. However, the residents were able to perform the safety confirmation method as a solution.

Next, the questionnaire results on the use of smartphones and videophones indicated that 8 out of 24 residents successfully contacted and confirmed their safety using these means, but some faced challenges. During the disaster prevention drill, the homes of elderly residents were visited. Information transmission was accepted as a solution, and disaster prevention drills were successfully conducted as a means of contact. This approach was thought to be accepted by the residents to prevent isolation in mountain villages using the CAUSE model. Based on these results, each stage of the CAUSE model in isolation measures was considered valid and effective.

3.2. Application of the CAUSE Model in China (Five Areas)

The Yangtze River Basin is a key area for sediment disasters in China. The Qinba Mountain region, located in the upper reaches of the Han River, a tributary of the Yangtze River, encompasses the Qinling and Daba Mountains and their adjacent areas. It spans 76 counties and districts across the following 6 provinces and municipalities: Gansu, Sichuan, Shanxi, Chongqing, Henan, and Hubei. This region is predominantly mountainous with concentrated rainfall, making it a high-risk area for sediment disasters in China. Since 2001, a significant number of people have suffered, hundreds have gone missing, and direct economic losses have reached nearly CNY 10 billion due to disasters in the Qinba Mountain region.

To effectively address this issue, adopting the CAUSE model approach, combined with China’s sediment disaster prevention and control system, is essential. By clarifying the characteristics of sediment disasters in the Yangtze River Basin, and formulating targeted prevention and control measures for the region, it becomes a crucial means to mitigate the frequent occurrence of such disasters and their secondary geological hazards in mountainous areas, thereby safeguarding people’s lives and property.

3.2.1. Local Geological Field Survey

The field survey conducted by researchers and experts raised awareness among participants about the importance of disaster response. This field survey involved collaboration between the local disaster management department, universities, disaster-related agencies, and disaster prevention specialists. The objective was to make informed and experienced judgments and responses during disasters by thoroughly investigating the on-site situation and recording the findings.

Table 2. Summary of the geological characteristics, households, and countermeasures for all sites.

No	Geological Characteristics	Disaster Subject	Countermeasure
Site A	There is a thick accumulation of gravel and soil on the slope, and the surface water mainly comes from rainfall. During the investigation, water was found to be flowing out, indicating that the groundwater was abundant. The retaining wall at the front edge was damaged, the rear edge had obvious cracks, and the trees at the rear edge were crooked.	5 households; highway	Meteorological observation; Channel runoff observation; Flood level observation; Soil moisture observation; Groundwater level observation; Slope deformation observation.
Site B	The slope is primarily composed of weathered rock and gravelly soil. The area is flanked by gullies with streams flowing through it, featuring lush vegetation and extensive farmland, with an overall gentle gradient. Current signs of potential landslides include displacement cracks on the roads within the investigation area, cracked houses along the roadside that are nearly collapsing, displaced drainage pipes behind the walls of nearby residential buildings, and tension cracks in houses on the hillside. Based on these indicators, it can be concluded that the area is highly likely to experience a landslide disaster under heavy rainfall conditions.	8 households; highway	Meteorological observation; Channel runoff observation; Flood level observation; Soil moisture observation; Groundwater level observation; Slope deformation observation.
Site C	The area is a scenic spot and, according to residents, rainfall frequently triggers rockfall events. Investigations revealed that the slope structure is incomplete, with tensile cracks aligned with the slope’s inclination. If a rock collapse occurs, it could disrupt road traffic, severely impacting transportation.	highway	Meteorological observation; Rockfall observation.
Site D	This area consists of an ancient landslide deposit composed of soil and rock, with a structurally deformed slope. The vegetation is predominantly artificially planted peach trees. The region has a large catchment area, with the valley surrounded by mountains on three sides and a narrow outlet, giving it an overall leaf-like planar shape.	5 households; highway	Meteorological observation; Channel runoff observation; Flood level observation; Soil moisture observation; Groundwater level observation; Slope deformation observation.
Site E	The area features high mountainous terrain with a large catchment area. The gullies are narrow, elongated, and steeply sloped, containing two main streams that flow year-round. The gully outlets are drained through culverts.	5 households; highway	Meteorological observation; Channel runoff observation; Flood level observation; Soil moisture observation; Groundwater level observation; Slope deformation observation.

provides a summary of geological characteristics, households, and countermeasures for all of the sites.

Table 3. The summary of the field survey conducted in the sediment-related disaster warning area from a geological expert’s viewpoint identified and selected high-risk slopes. Note: ◎: very applicable; 〇: applicable; △: a few applicable; -: not applicable.

Evaluation Items	Site A	Site B	Site C	Site D	Site E
(1) Slopes with no exposed base rock and collapsible surface soil	△	◎	-	◎	◎
(2) Evidence of past collapse or cracks	-	◎	-	〇	-
(3) Relatively tight slope	◎	◎	◎	◎	〇
(4) Possibility of collapsed sediment reaching houses, etc.	〇	◎	△	◎	◎
(5) Facing a public building	◎	-	-	-	◎
(6) The degree of damage is assumed to be above a certain scale	○	◎	△	◎	◎

provides a summary of the field survey conducted in the sediment-related disaster warning area from a geological expert’s viewpoint, identifying and selecting high-risk slopes.

• Site A

Geological Environmental Conditions: This area is located in a low-to-middle mountain area characterized by tectonic dissolution and erosion, with the terrain generally higher in the southwest and lower in the northeast. Near the houses on the right boundary of the slope, bedrock is exposed, consisting primarily of the Mesoproterozoic Wudang Group metamorphic sedimentary rock formation, composed of bluish-gray quartz sericite schist and localized occurrences of grayish-yellow quartz sandstone. The exposed thickness exceeds 5 m, and the base is not visible. Due to weathering, the joints and fissures in the bedrock are not prominent.

Near the road at the foot of the left slope, groundwater seeps out year-round. The groundwater seepage point at the front edge of the road on the right boundary serves as a water source for irrigating farmland on the slope. The gully at the bottom of the road’s outer side is part of a local tributary channel. The periphery of the landslide is densely covered with trees and shrubs, while the slope itself is sparsely vegetated, mainly with weeds and a few trees. The front edge has been converted into dry farmland and vegetable plots, with artificially planted saplings of cash crops.

Boundary Conditions and Morphological Characteristics: The rear edge of the slope once exhibited tensile cracks, but these have since been filled and are no longer visible. The mid-to-front edge of the slope features multiple steep steps formed by tensile forces. The left boundary is a small gully, while the upper part of the right boundary lies along a ridge and is indistinct. The lower part of the right boundary is a gully. The front edge has been cut to construct roads and houses, with the shear outlet located beneath the road, making it difficult to identify in some areas. The landslide material on the right side consists mainly of Quaternary residual and slope deposits, primarily yellowish-brown gravelly soil. The central and left parts are dominated by landslide deposits, mixed with weathered bedrock fragments up to 2 m in diameter. The landslide has a tongue-shaped planform and a stepped profile. The slope angle ranges from 18° to 20°, with a main sliding direction of approximately 60°. The landslide is about 400 m long, 320 m wide, and 3 to 9 m thick, with an average thickness of 5 m, classifying it as medium-sized.

Deformation Characteristics and Activity History: Investigations and interviews indicate that the landslide area was disturbed by the cutting of slopes for road and house construction in earlier years. Landslide activity began in 2020, manifesting as tensile cracks at the rear edge and multiple cracks in nearby adobe houses. The front edge of the road developed elongated displacement cracks, and the retaining walls behind the houses were severely deformed. The houses experienced large-scale deformation and damage, with extensive wall cracks, leaving some structures on the verge of collapse.

Stability Analysis: The landslide is currently in an unstable state. The primary factors affecting its stability are human activities and rainfall. The overlying loose deposits and residual slope materials soften and lose mechanical strength when saturated by rainfall. The cutting of slopes for road and house construction at the foot of the slope, along with the construction of small retaining walls that are now severely damaged, exacerbates the instability. During prolonged rainfall, water infiltrates vertically, and the underlying argillaceous slate acts as a relatively impermeable layer, causing water to accumulate near the soil–rock interface and triggering creep. Under heavy or sustained rainfall, the slope may experience large-scale instability and sliding failure.

2.

Site B

Geological Environmental Conditions: It is situated in a low–middle mountain region defined by tectonic dissolution and erosion, with terrain higher in the south and lower in the north. Near the steep scarp at the rear edge of the slope, bedrock is exposed, mainly comprising the Mesoproterozoic Wudang Group metamorphic volcaniclastic–sedimentary rock formation. The primary lithology is grayish-yellow quartz schist, with occasional bluish-gray mica schist. The exposed thickness exceeds 2 m, but the base is not visible. No groundwater seepage points have been observed. The front edge of the landslide borders a tributary of a local river, located beyond the road. The landslide periphery is covered with trees and shrubs, with dense shrubs and weeds dominating the well-vegetated slope. The right side of the front edge has been partially converted into dry farmland. Figure 8 shows the landscape scene in Site B.

Boundary Conditions and Morphological Characteristics: The rear edge of the slope features a steep scarp formed by overall sliding, approximately 1.5 to 2.0 m in height. The rear wall comprises gravelly soil from the weathering and fragmentation of quartz schist, with some areas retaining relatively intact rock. Small gullies define the left and right boundaries. The front edge deposits overlie the second terrace of the river, with the shear outlet difficult to identify due to slope cutting for road and house construction. The material mainly consists of Quaternary residual and slope deposits, a mix of weathered bedrock and surface residual soil forming a gravelly soil layer with individual gravel fragments up to 0.5 m in diameter. The slope has a tongue-shaped planform and a straight profile, with an average slope angle of about 15° and a main sliding direction of 150°. It measures approximately 120 m long, 105 m wide, and 2 to 8 m thick, with an average thickness of about 4 m, classifying it as a small landslide.

Deformation Characteristics and Activity History: The area was disturbed by slope cutting for road and house construction in earlier years. Landslide activity began in 2012, manifesting as tensile cracks at the rear edge due to overall sliding, forming multi-level scarps with a height difference of 1.5 to 2.0 m. The front edge of the road developed elongated displacement cracks, but nearby houses showed no significant damage, and the steep scarp behind the houses exhibited no noticeable deformation.

Stability Analysis: Investigations and interviews indicate that the landslide has been slowly creeping up in recent years. Post-rain creep phenomena can still be observed at the front edge, suggesting a marginally stable state. The primary stability factors are human activities and rainfall. Under heavy or sustained rainfall, the landslide may experience large-scale instability and sliding failure.

3.

Site C

Geological Environmental Conditions: The area features a low–middle mountain landform characterized by tectonic dissolution and erosion. The lithology primarily consists of the Mesoproterozoic Wudang Group metamorphic volcaniclastic–sedimentary rock formation (Pt2wc), composed of grayish-yellow quartz schist. The rock strata have an orientation of 205°∠10°. The rock mass is highly fractured due to well-developed joints and fissures, with the bedding plane acting as one set of joints. Vegetation on the slope is sparse, with only a few small shrubs and weeds. Below the unstable rock mass, there are artificially constructed roads, viewing platforms, and parking areas, located approximately 50 m above a river channel.

Boundary Conditions and Morphological Characteristics: The left boundary of the collapse consists of colluvial deposits and bedrock, while the right boundary is bedrock exposed by road cutting. The total length of the collapse is about 50 m, with a height ranging from 10 to 20 m. The source area of the collapse has a thickness of 2 to 5 m, with an average thickness of about 3 m. The source area covers approximately 600 square meters, with a volume of about 1800 cubic meters, classifying it as a small-scale collapse. The main collapse direction is approximately 9°, and the movement type is a toppling failure.

Deformation Characteristics and Activity History: The unstable rock mass exhibits highly developed joints and fissures, with severe rock exposure and low vegetation coverage. According to investigations and interviews, rainfall frequently triggers rockfalls from the unstable mass, posing a significant threat to the safety of pedestrians and vehicles passing by. The unstable rock mass has developed multiple tensile cracks. The road below has collapsed several times, with noticeable crack development, and the adjacent viewing platform has also undergone severe deformation.

Stability Analysis: The unstable rock mass is located alongside a major traffic route used by pedestrians and vehicles. Under heavy or prolonged rainfall, the rock mass may experience large-scale instability, leading to significant rockfalls that could paralyze traffic.

4.

Site D

The slope vegetation here is relatively developed, mainly artificially planted peach forests. The area of the source area is about 60,000 square meters, the slope is broken, mainly composed of loose soil and rock residual slope accumulation layers, the lithology is mainly gravelly soil, the soil–rock ratio is about 4:6 to 7:3, and the thickness of the residual slope accumulation layer is 0.5 to 1 m. The valley is surrounded by mountains on three sides, with a large catchment area. The debris flow gully is developed in an east–west direction, the gully mouth is relatively narrow, and the west side of the gully mouth is close to the river channel.

5.

Site E

This area has high mountains, a large catchment area, narrow and long ravines with steep slopes, and two main ravines, both of which have perennial water flow. The ravine mouth is a culvert for drainage, which is convenient for monitoring the flood volume and flood level, so this place was set as a flood level monitoring point.

3.2.2. CAUSE Model to Promote Regional Disaster Prevention Measures

In disaster education for university students and residents, the importance of disaster preparedness is explained, deepening their understanding and awareness (Awareness) and developing their judgment skills. The government presents solutions to public assistance challenges related to disaster response tasks, ensuring that students and residents understand (Understanding) these solutions. Additionally, students and residents are made aware of the importance of engaging in self-help and mutual assistance activities. Before the training, preparations were made to ensure its success, as shown in Figure 9.

3.2.3. Study Class for Disaster Prevention Responsibilities

In the training for disaster management officials, emphasis was placed on understanding the importance of inter-departmental collaboration and training judgment skills according to the disaster site conditions. Subsequently, a survey was conducted, and it was confirmed that all of the respondents achieved the goals of “Awareness”, “Understanding”, and “Solution”.

Based on the survey results, a demonstration experiment was conducted to verify the effectiveness of the various stages. This demonstration experiment involved installing disaster monitoring systems at local sites and implementing disaster response measures (Enactment). The initiatives at each stage of the CAUSE model in regional disaster prevention measures are considered to be valid and effective methods, as shown in Figure 10.

3.2.4. Questionnaire Survey

To better support disaster prevention officers in executing and managing local disaster prevention efforts, 31 officer trainees participated in a disaster prevention training workshop. A questionnaire survey was conducted following the training, with the details shown in

Table 4. The contents of the questionnaires.

No	Contents	Excellent	Good	Acceptable
1	Integrated watershed management (09:45–11:45, day 1)
2	The water hazard alleviation in Site 1 (14:30–16:30, day 1)
3	Practice and strategies of mountain torrent disaster prevention (09:00–11:00, day 2)
4	Non-engineering prevention measures of mountain torrent disasters in Site 2 (14:30–16:30, day 2)
5	Establishment and effectiveness of the non-engineering defense system for mountain torrent disasters in Site 3 (09:00–11:00, day 3)
6	Progress of national quantitative precipitation forecast (14:30–16:30, day 3)
7	Water resources cooperation in Site 4 (09:00–10:00, day 4)
8	Mountain torrent disaster prevention in Site 5 (10:00–11:00, day 4)
9	River Flood Protection Moder in Site 6 (08:30–11:30; day 5)
10	Changjiang Civilization Museum (14:00–16:30; day 5)
11	On-site Visit: Three Gorges Dam (14:00–17:30, day 6)
12	On-site Visit: Jinsha Site Museum (09:00–12:00 day 7)
13	On-site Visit: Flood Control Projects in Site1 (13:30–16:30, day 7)
14	On-site Visit: Water Conservancy Project in site 4 (09:00–16:30, day 8)

.

A total of 31 feedback responses were received, achieving a 100% recovery rate. The results are shown in Figure 11. The analysis is summarized as follows.

High Overall Satisfaction: More than half of the trainees rated the training content as “Excellent”, followed by “Good” and “Acceptable”, indicating that the overall effectiveness of the training was positive, with high satisfaction among participants.

Areas for Improvement: Some of the training content, such as quantitative precipitation forecasting techniques and the historical development of sediment disaster prevention and control, was rated as “Average”. Trainees suggested the need for more background information. This highlights that different countries have varying national conditions and historical contexts. Therefore, while introducing China’s sediment disaster prevention technologies, it is essential to adapt and promote advanced concepts and techniques based on the specific needs of other regions.

Lower Interest in Theoretical Content: The fifth evaluation item, “Performance Evaluation of Non-Engineering Measures for Sediment Disaster Prevention and Control in Site 3”, was more theoretical and received relatively lower interest and attention from the trainees. Feedback suggests that the trainees found the theoretical content harder to understand and accept, while showing greater interest in the applied research and case studies. Therefore, future training programs should integrate theoretical explanations with applied research and case studies to enhance trainee engagement and comprehension.

3.2.5. Evaluation and Feedback from the Training Program

At the end of the training program, the trainers reviewed the project and offered suggestions for improvement. Feedback from the participants indicates that there is still room for improvement in the course design and content of this training program. The curriculum should be more closely aligned with the practical needs of sediment disaster prevention and control, with a focus on introducing advanced disaster prevention technologies. Additionally, it should provide insights into the application prospects of these technologies in other regions, enabling the participants to clearly understand and benefit from the training. In terms of the content, there should be less emphasis on theoretical explanations and more on practical applications, making it easier for the participants to comprehend and apply the knowledge. The key suggestions are shown below.

Practical Alignment: The curriculum should better match the practical needs of sediment disaster prevention and control. This includes focusing on advanced disaster prevention technologies.

Application Prospects: The training should provide insights into how these technologies can be applied in other regions, helping the participants to clearly understand and benefit from the training.

Practical Over Theory: Emphasize practical applications over theoretical explanations. This approach makes it easier for the participants to grasp and use the knowledge.

4. Discussion

Sediment disasters, such as landslides and debris flows, are common in both Japan and China, thus justifying the application of the CAUSE model for risk communication in disaster prevention and mitigation. By using the CAUSE model, which provides the conception and purpose for risk communications, it is possible to facilitate smooth risk communication among residents, communities, government agencies, and experts.

Field surveys were conducted because they are crucial for the prevention and mitigation of sediment disasters. They can provide accurate information about the terrain, soil composition, and potential risk areas. The results of field surveys are not only essential for communities to create effective hazard maps and early-warning systems, but also help residents easily understand the risk conditions around them.

In some stages of the CAUSE model, questionnaires were conducted. To ensure that the questions were straightforward and easily understood, minimizing misinterpretation, the questionnaires were carefully prepared. The responses were collected anonymously, as anonymity can reduce social desirability bias and encourage more honest responses.

The disaster prevention awareness of rural residents in Japan may be influenced by multiple factors. The following are the key reasons [2]:

The Natural Environment and Disaster Frequency: Japan is an island nation located on the Pacific Ring of Fire, frequently affected by natural disasters such as earthquakes and typhoons. Therefore, the Japanese people have been in a high-risk environment for a long time, forming a strong awareness of disaster prevention.

Disaster Prevention Awareness and Education: As a country prone to earthquakes, Japan’s citizens generally have a strong awareness of disaster prevention. From elementary school, various disaster drills are frequently organized, providing children with systematic disaster prevention education. They have a deep understanding of natural disasters and make corresponding preparations in daily life, such as keeping emergency kits at home and knowing the location of the nearest evacuation shelters. Disaster prevention education is part of basic education in Japan, covering kindergarten to high school. Students not only learn theoretical knowledge but also regularly participate in practical drills. Communities also host disaster prevention lectures and drills for all residents, enhancing the overall response capability of the community.

Early-Warning Mechanism and Social Participation: Disaster information is widely disseminated through multiple channels, such as radio, television, and mobile phones, to ensure that the information quickly reaches every corner. The level of public participation in disaster prevention work is very high in Japan. Many citizens join volunteer teams to provide help and support when disasters occur. Japanese culture emphasizes collectivism and a sense of personal responsibility. In disaster prevention, this manifests as a general willingness among people to actively participate in disaster prevention activities and a belief that following scientific guidance can effectively reduce losses.

There are some limitations in the CAUSE model, particularly in terms of the scalability and potential resistance from communities unfamiliar with collaborative frameworks. One of the main constraints is the scalability of the CAUSE model. Implementing the model on a large scale can be resource-intensive, requiring significant time, funding, and manpower. Adapting or modifying the CAUSE model for larger or more resource-limited settings is quite challenging. Another critical limitation is the potential resistance from communities that are not accustomed to collaborative frameworks. The CAUSE model relies on active participation and cooperation among various stakeholders. In communities where collaborative practices are not common, there may be hesitation or reluctance to engage fully. Strategies to overcome such resistance, such as community engagement initiatives, education, and building trust among stakeholders, need to be improved.

Adapting the CAUSE model to fit the specific cultural, social, and environmental contexts of the new regions involves understanding local customs, beliefs, and practices so to ensure that the model is relevant and effective. This means involving local stakeholders, including government agencies, community leaders, and residents, in the adaptation process. Their input can provide valuable insights and help tailor the model to local needs.

In summary, although both countries face similar natural disaster challenges, differences in historical background, economic development, and cultural traditions have led to different characteristics in disaster prevention thinking in rural areas. With deeper exchanges and cooperation, both countries are learning from each other’s strengths and continuously improving their disaster prevention systems.

5. Conclusions

Japan has accumulated rich practical experience in disaster countermeasures and comprehensive management, forming a mature theoretical system. With the help of Japanese disaster prevention experience, and by using the CAUSE model, regional disaster prevention strategies in the mountains of China can be improved to reduce the frequent problems associated with disasters, and to ensure the safety of the people’s lives and property.

The purpose of the analysis and the application of regional disaster prevention strategies in this study was to confirm the importance and effectiveness of residents’ self-help and mutual assistance, as well as the efficiency of disaster prevention. It also provides indispensable support for the local government’s disaster prevention efforts. Promoting strong relationships among residents and fostering disaster prevention education has deepened residents’ understanding of sediment disasters (landslides and mudslides). When a disaster occurs, the residents’ enhanced emergency response abilities effectively reduce the dangers posed to society. The results of both studies demonstrated the validity of each stage of the CAUSE model. Based on this outcome, risk communication using the CAUSE model in regional disaster prevention measures has been consolidated into a single system.