An Urban Acoustic Rainfall Estimation Technique Using a CNN Inversion Approach for Potential Smart City Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodology
2.1. Overview
2.2. Study Site and Data Collection
2.2.1. On-Site Calibration and Validation Dataset
2.2.2. Off-Site Validation Dataset
2.3. Acoustic Feature Representation
2.4. Convolutional Neural Networks
2.5. CNN-Based Urban Rainfall Denoising Framework Development
2.6. Acoustic Rainfall Sensing Model Development
2.6.1. Baseline Model
2.6.2. CNN-Based Acoustic Rainfall Sensing Model
2.7. Loss Functions
2.8. Performance Criteria
2.8.1. CNN-Based Urban Rainfall Denoising Model
- Accuracy percentage (%) calculated using Equation (11):
- Recall percentage calculated using Equation (12):
- Specificity percentage calculated using Equation (13):
- Precision percentage calculated using Equation (14):
2.8.2. CNN-Based Acoustic Rainfall Sensing Model
- Coefficient of determination (R2) calculated using Equation (15):
- Root mean square error (RMSE) calculated using Equation (16):
- Mean absolute error (MAE) calculated using Equation (17):
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Rainfall Data Analysis
3.2. CNN-Based Urban Acoustic Denoising Framework
3.3. CNN-Based Acoustic Rainfall Sensing Model
3.4. Local CNN Explainability
3.5. Potential Application in Citizen Science—Proof of Concept
4. Conclusions and Future Works
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Point | Location | Remarks | Distance from the Rain Gauge (m) |
---|---|---|---|
Sound Recording Stations | |||
A | Greenhouse | The most dominant surface is a perspex transparent flexible rooftop surface, while the recording area is surrounded by metallic surfaces | 172 |
B | Storage room on the rooftop of building 5A | The most dominant surface is a hard concrete surface | 63 |
C | University main gate | The most dominant surfaces are covered by interlock pavement and flexible canopy | 110 |
D | Food court | A glass canopy with a mix of vegetation cover | 37 |
E | Umbrella setup | A standard flexible and waterproofing umbrella fabric | 105 |
Rainfall Gauge Station | |||
F | The rooftop of building 5 (rain gauge location) | Located in the centre of all other recording points. Moreover, it is the nearest recorder to one of the rain gauges | 0 |
Layer No. | Components |
---|---|
Layer 1 | Input layer with 96 × 64 × 1 |
Layer 2 | activation function. |
Layer 3 | Max pooling layer with 2 × 2 kernel size, 2 × 2 stride step, and zero padding |
Layer 4 | activation function. |
Layer 5 | Max pooling layer with 2 × 2 kernel size, 2 × 2 stride step, and zero padding. |
Layer 6 | activation function. |
Layer 7 | activation function. |
Layer 8 | Max pooling layer with 2 × 2 kernel size, 2 × 2 stride step, and zero padding. |
Layer 9 | activation function. |
Layer 10 | activation function. |
Layer 11 | Max pooling layer with 2 × 2 kernel size, 2 × 2 stride step, and zero padding. |
Layer 12 | activation function |
Layer 13 | activation function |
Layer 14 | activation function |
Layer 15 | A modified classification layer with a binary cross-entropy loss function |
Dataset | Accuracy (%) | Recall (%) | Specificity (%) | Precision (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Training | 98.5 | 98.8 | 98.1 | 98.1 |
Validation | 98.7 | 98.9 | 98.4 | 98.4 |
Testing | 98.6 | 98.8 | 98.4 | 98.4 |
Data Split | Min | Max | Median | Mean | SD | Skewness |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Training (80%) | 0.000 | 3.000 | 0.250 | 0.468 | 0.503 | 1.603 |
Validation (10%) | 0.000 | 3.000 | 0.250 | 0.470 | 0.506 | 1.619 |
Testing (10%) | 0.000 | 3.000 | 0.250 | 0.465 | 0.498 | 1.581 |
Model | Dataset | R2 | RMSE (mm·min−1) | MAE (mm·min−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline FC model | Training | 0.380 | 0.384 | 0.275 |
Validation | 0.374 | 0.398 | 0.285 | |
Testing | 0.350 | 0.413 | 0.293 | |
Decibel-Spectrogram-CNN | Training | 0.785 | 0.233 | 0.170 |
Validation | 0.753 | 0.252 | 0.177 | |
Testing | 0.747 | 0.251 | 0.183 | |
Log-Mel-Spectrogram-CNN | Training | 0.819 | 0.214 | 0.159 |
Validation | 0.789 | 0.233 | 0.166 | |
Testing | 0.764 | 0.242 | 0.175 |
Model | Environment | R2 | RMSE | MAE |
---|---|---|---|---|
(mm·min−1) | (mm·min−1) | |||
Decibel-Spectrogram-CNN | A | 0.800 | 0.239 | 0.173 |
B | 0.747 | 0.246 | 0.176 | |
C | 0.749 | 0.276 | 0.202 | |
D | 0.756 | 0.246 | 0.182 | |
E | 0.594 | 0.262 | 0.193 | |
Log-Mel-Spectrogram-CNN | A | 0.810 | 0.233 | 0.170 |
B | 0.735 | 0.252 | 0.179 | |
C | 0.753 | 0.271 | 0.196 | |
D | 0.791 | 0.230 | 0.167 | |
E | 0.676 | 0.228 | 0.167 |
Model | Intensity Class | RMSE | MAE |
---|---|---|---|
(mm·min−1) | (mm·min−1) | ||
Decibel-Spectrogram-CNN | <60 mm·h−1 | 0.208 | 0.158 |
≥60 mm·h−1 | 0.550 | 0.439 | |
Log-Mel-Spectrogram-CNN | <60 mm·h−1 | 0.195 | 0.149 |
≥60 mm·h−1 | 0.393 | 0.295 |
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Alkhatib, M.I.I.; Talei, A.; Chang, T.K.; Pauwels, V.R.N.; Chow, M.F. An Urban Acoustic Rainfall Estimation Technique Using a CNN Inversion Approach for Potential Smart City Applications. Smart Cities 2023, 6, 3112-3137. https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities6060139
Alkhatib MII, Talei A, Chang TK, Pauwels VRN, Chow MF. An Urban Acoustic Rainfall Estimation Technique Using a CNN Inversion Approach for Potential Smart City Applications. Smart Cities. 2023; 6(6):3112-3137. https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities6060139
Chicago/Turabian StyleAlkhatib, Mohammed I. I., Amin Talei, Tak Kwin Chang, Valentijn R. N. Pauwels, and Ming Fai Chow. 2023. "An Urban Acoustic Rainfall Estimation Technique Using a CNN Inversion Approach for Potential Smart City Applications" Smart Cities 6, no. 6: 3112-3137. https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities6060139