Next Article in Journal
Protection Criteria of Cathodically Protected Pipelines Under AC Interference
Previous Article in Journal
Chemical Equilibrium Fracture Mechanics—Hydrogen Embrittlement Application
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
CMD
Volume 6
Issue 1
10.3390/cmd6010006
cmd-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

The Influence of Nanocoatings on the Wear, Corrosion, and Erosion Properties of AISI 304 and AISI 316L Stainless Steels: A Critical Review Regarding Hydro Turbines

by
Kazem Reza Kashyzadeh
1,*,
Waleed Khalid Mohammed Ridha
2 and
Siamak Ghorbani
2
1
Department of Transport Equipment and Technology, Academy of Engineering, RUDN University, 6 Miklukho-Maklaya Street, Moscow 117198, Russia
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Academy of Engineering, RUDN University, 6 Miklukho-Maklaya Street, Moscow 117198, Russia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6010006
Submission received: 20 December 2024 / Revised: 30 January 2025 / Accepted: 5 February 2025 / Published: 7 February 2025
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
In the current study, the authors have listed the causes of common failures in hydro turbine blades. In the following, coatings, as one of the practical solutions that can be utilized in the hydropower industry, were selected for further investigation. In this regard, nanocoating technology is used to prevent the above-mentioned failures, as well as to extend the service lifetime of turbine blades, to increase the inspection time, i.e., the overhaul intervals, and to reduce repair costs. Therefore, firstly, the raw materials of runner blades in different types of turbines were checked. The collected data revealed that this equipment is usually made of stainless steel (i.e., 304 and 316L). Therefore, the main focus of the current research was a general investigation of the effects of different nanocoatings on the material properties, including the wear, corrosion, and erosion, of 304 and 316L steels. Finally, a coating process used in this industry that is suitable for overhaul rather than initial construction was investigated. The advantages of using nanocoatings compared to traditional coatings in this industry were enumerated. In addition, the effects of single-layer and multi-layer coatings with different compositions on the corrosion, wear, and erosion properties of each of these stainless steels were discussed. Eventually, considering the gaps in past research and summarizing the collected results, a future research direction was proposed, including different combinations of materials to create new nanocoatings (with different percentages of nano alumina and titanium carbide).

1. Introduction

Energy is the basis for the evolution and continuation of modern life. In other words, without energy, human society will be disrupted from various viewpoints. On the other hand, the global energy demand is increasing by 2% annually as a result of population growth. For example, rich industrialized countries that make up 25% of the world’s population consume about 75% of the energy produced globally as a result of their evolving lifestyles [1]. Due to the ever-increasing energy demand in the world, the rapid reduction in fossil fuel resources, the associated environmental issues, and the fact that equitable development cannot be achieved if we continue to compromise the sustainability of the environment, therefore, the integration of clean energy resources is necessary [2]. In this regard, hydropower plants are considered the most beneficial sources of renewable energy [3]. Since hydropower facilities do not release any harmful waste or air pollutants during their operation, they are considered low-pollution energy sources compared to fossil-fuel-based power plants. As a result, hydropower is considered an essential component of clean energy systems. The turbine is known as the beating heart of any hydropower plant. The task of this part is to rotate the shaft in order to convert water power into mechanical power. For this purpose, the rotating shaft of a hydraulic turbine is equipped with a row of blades. Turbine failure poses a huge risk to the lives of operational and maintenance staff, especially when a power plant is underground, and it not only lengthens the plant’s downtime but also results in financial losses [4]. The available literature basically identifies four main types of failures as follows:

1.1. The Erosion Phenomenon

One of the most common definitions of the erosion phenomenon is the process of repeatedly cutting and changing the shape of an object and finally removing material from its surface over time [5]. Experimental results show that various parameters affect the erosion rate of hydro turbine runners, the most important of which are the sediment size, silt hardness and concentration, water velocity, and base material characteristics [6,7,8]. With an increase in the erosive wear and eventually the failure of hydro turbines, the operational efficiency of the power plant, i.e., its electricity production, decreases. In this mechanism, mass is lost as a result of repeated collisions of solid particles suspended in a liquid in contact with a surface. In fact, this is known as slurry erosion, and one of the main causes of hydraulic equipment failure is the various slurries used in a variety of industrial applications [9,10,11]. Figure 1 shows significant sand erosion damage to the Haditha hydropower plant, with six vertical Kaplan turbines and a unit capacity of 110 MW of electricity generation, in Iraq. Based on the fluctuations in the water flow velocity and impingement angle of the sediment particles, Thapa (2004), Matsumura (2002), and Chen (2002) have categorized the erosion conditions in reaction turbines into three groups [12], which are given in Table 1.

1.2. Cavitation

In a hydraulic turbine, the cavitation phenomenon is a serious problem because it impairs performance, damages the turbine components, and requires more maintenance. Hydro turbines use water that is subject to variations in pressure and velocity. Changes in the flow characteristics can be the outcome of these variances, affecting the efficiency and service life of turbines. One of the effects of such changes is cavitation damage. Cavitation occurs when the variations in the fluid’s pressure around a moving part are lower the fluid’s vapor pressure, causing the formation of vapor bubbles and then bursting [13]. In fact, cavitation may occur close to the rotating blades of high-speed turbines or near a turbine outlet when there are significant differences between the static and dynamic components from a flow pressure viewpoint [14,15]. Cavitation causes vibration, an increase in hydrodynamic drag, changes in the flow hydrodynamics, erosion, thermal and light effects such as luminescence, noise generation, and acoustic emission [16]. Figure 2 shows the surface pitting that occurred as a result of cavitation in a Kaplan hydro turbine of the Haditha hydropower project.

1.3. Corrosion

In general, corrosive environments, such as corrosive solutions like acids, etc., cause changes in the structure of materials, which ultimately leads to corrosion damage. Therefore, corrosion damage results from the chemical interaction of the metal’s surface with the constituent elements of the corrosive environment [17]. As illustrated in Figure 3, erosion–corrosion is a major issue in hydropower equipment. When the surface of a material is bombarded by suspended solid particles in a slurry, erosion–corrosion damage occurs. The combined effects of the chemical reactions caused by and the mechanical forces exerted by solid particles cause significantly more damage than the individual damage caused by each of these processes [18].

1.4. The Fatigue Phenomenon

Another type of turbine failure mode common in industry is material fatigue. According to the reports of some scholars, the cause of most failures of mechanical parts in various industries is the phenomenon of fatigue (50–90%), and it often occurs without prior alarms or warnings [19,20,21]. In this regard, for turbine components that are repeatedly subjected to a pressure lower than their usual yield strength, after a certain period of time, surface cracks are created in them and lead to complete failure with the growth of these cracks (exactly the mechanism of the fatigue phenomenon) [22]. One of the most famous of these loadings is vibration. The turbine assembly consists of numerous interconnected parts, and as a result, any vibration in one part causes vibrations in the other parts and causes deformation in the system [23]. Eddy currents are formed as a result of the water flow on the surface of hydro turbines, which leads to vibration and strain on the turbine blades and other parts [24]. A runner blade of a turbine that failed due to multiple fatigue cracks is illustrated in Figure 4.
One of the proposed and practical solutions in the industry to prevent the destructive phenomena mentioned above is the use of nanoscale coating technology. Therefore, the main focus of this article is an overview of the types of coating methods and the coatings used to deal with various failures. The authors also believe, based on their industrial experience, that both the coating method and the coating composition (the percentage of different elements), as well as the coating thickness, directly affect the performance of the parts. Since most of the attention is on problem-solving in industry and industrialists seek to safeguard the nature of their problems, they rarely publish the solutions they have used. Hence, the authors should first examine the materials in the critical parts and then address any issues based on the research conducted on these materials. Therefore, the next section of this article is dedicated to the materials used in turbine blades and runners. The lack of detailed investigations into the specific impact of nanocoatings on AISI 304 and 316L in hydropower applications was one of the authors’ motivations for writing this review article. Then, coating techniques are briefly explained in the third section. The fourth section deals with the composition of the coatings used in the industry and their effectiveness against the aforementioned destructive phenomena. Finally, a general summary of the data presented and suggestions for future research are provided.

2. The Materials Used in the Manufacture of Hydro Turbines

In general, the materials used to construct hydro turbines must be able to withstand the high stresses caused by water pressure, in addition to wear, erosion, and cavitation; therefore, stainless steel is the best option. Stainless steels can be classified into martensitic steel, ferrite steel, and austenitic steel depending on their crystalline structural state [26]. The amount of carbon that each of these crystal formations can absorb is one of their distinguishing features. Although metallurgical researchers have shown that a higher carbon content results in tougher but more brittle steel, this statement is not always true. Therefore, in order to manufacture a new turbine runner or to repair one, it is very important to choose the right type of steel. Based on the collected data, the runners are made of martensitic and austenitic steels, as well as duplex. Duplex has also been used as a coating on carbon steel runners to prevent corrosion and cavitation [27]. Among steels, austenitic stainless steels are frequently utilized in hydropower plants due to their excellent corrosion and erosion resistance, high strength, and high durability [28,29]. Fully austenitic stainless steels have a Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) crystallographic structure of -Fe and are mainly composed of Fe, Cr, and Ni [30]. The largest family of stainless steels, austenitic stainless steel [31], comprises approximately two-thirds of total stainless steel production in the world. Furthermore, to maintain an austenitic microstructure at all temperatures, from cryogens to the melting point, they are created by alloying nickel and/or manganese with nitrogen [32]. The main composition of austenitic is the well-known 18% chromium and 8% nickel alloy. Austenitic steel alloys with a chromium concentration of 17–20% are commonly used for high-head turbines because they improve the stability of the protective coating and increase the service life of the runner blades. Alternatively, martensitic stainless steel, which is twice as strong as austenitic stainless steel, can be used to manufacture blades [33]. In addition, stainless steel or Corten steel is typically used to construct low-head hydro turbines [34]. In the following, two general categories of austenitic stainless steels are described:
  • 200 series: To limit the consumption of manganese and nitrogen, the 200 series consists of chromium–manganese–nickel alloys. Due to the addition of nitrogen, they are approximately 50% more productive than 300 series stainless steel sheets [35].
  • 300 series: Nickel alloys primarily produce the austenitic microstructure of the chromite–nickel alloys in the 300 series; some extremely high-strength alloys also contain some nitrogen to reduce the amount of nickel required. The most commonly used types of this series are as follows:
    ○
    304 SS: The most commonly recognized grade is 304, often referred to as 18/8 and 18/10 due to its composition of 18% Cr and 8–10% Ni.
    ○
    316 SS: This is the second most widely used austenitic steel. Due to the presence of chloride ions, 2% molybdenum increases acidity and local corrosion resistance. Moreover, low-carbon varieties, such as 316L or 304L, which contain less than 0.03% carbon, are used to prevent weld corrosion [36].
Table 2 summarizes the different types of stainless steels, including duplex, along with their wear and corrosion resistance, benefits, and drawbacks.
In summary, the most popular stainless steels are type 304 and 316 austenitic stainless steels, which offer a combination of high strength and outstanding ductility, as well as excellent resistance to corrosion, erosion, and wear [37,38]. These types of stainless steels are commonly used for turbine runners and wicket gates [39].

2.1. Specifications of 304 SS

It has a minimum density of 7.81 g/cm3 and is a very light metal. To fulfill the demands of various applications, the strength of 304 SS can be improved by altering its alloy composition [40]. Stainless steel 304 efficiently resists wear and corrosion. According to the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 304 steels are also divided into three main types—304, 304L, and 304H alloys—which differ chemically based on their carbon content. In this regard, 304L has the lowest carbon percentage (0.03%), 304H has the highest (0.04–0.1%), and the balanced 304 splits the difference (0.08%) [41]. This type of stainless steel is widely used in hydro turbines, especially runner blades and wicked gates, due to its good mechanical properties, high chemical stability, high resistance to corrosion and erosion, and cost-effectiveness. The composition is 0.042% C, 1.19% Mn, 0.034% P, 0.006% S, 0.58% Si, 18.24% Cr, and 8.49% Ni, and the rest is Fe. Some of the mechanical properties of 304 SS include ultimate tensile and yield strengths of 646 and 270 MPa, respectively; elongation of 50%; and a hardness of 82 HRB [41].
Despite their increased strength and corrosion resistance, duplex stainless steels (e.g., duplex 2205) are less cost-effective for hydro turbine blades unless they are used in exceptionally severe environments due to their higher cost and difficulty to machine. For most hydro turbine applications, AISI 316 and AISI 304 offer a dependable and reasonably priced solution; in more demanding settings, AISI 316 is the recommended option.

2.2. Specifications of 316L SS

Austenitic chromium–nickel stainless steel containing molybdenum is known as 316 SS. Contrary to 304 stainless steel, which is the most popular type of stainless steel, it has improved corrosion resistance to chloride and other acids. This makes it perfect for outdoor use in marine environments or applications with potential exposure to chlorides [42]. The composition of 316 SS is 17–20% Cr, 13–15% nickel, 2–3% molybdenum, and small amounts of other elements, e.g., 0.08% carbon, 2.00% manganese, 0.045% phosphorus, 0.030% sulfur, and 1% silicon [43]. The symbol “L” indicates “low carbon content” (C < 0.03%). Chromium is the main constituent responsible for the excellent passivation ability of these alloys. Because this film is the foundation for the corrosion resistance of all stainless steels and the majority of nickel-based alloys are corrosion-resistant alloys, the least quantity of chromium is required to generate a stable passive chromium oxide layer [42]. Moreover, 316L SS offers high-temperature rupture and tensile strength, outstanding formability, high corrosion and erosion resistance, and high creep resistance [44]. Ultimately, this type of stainless steel is suitable for hydropower plant applications due to its high resistance to corrosion, erosion, wear, and pitting.

3. The Coating Technologies Used in This Specific Industry

A layer of material created spontaneously or artificially applied to the surface of a component composed of another material with the aim of improving its mechanical quality and resistance to erosion and corrosion is called a coating. As is well known, applying nanostructured coatings is one of the finest strategies for stopping corrosion and erosion. Currently, efficient methods for obtaining nanocoatings include thermal spraying, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, electrolytic deposition, the sol–gel process, etc. The discovery of chemical vapor deposition and physical vapor deposition led to the creation of hard protective coatings, but in modern times, more common deposition techniques, such as thermal spray processes, are better methods for depositing coatings with different parameters and can provide a large throughput in the shortest time [45]. As nanostructured engineered coatings obtained through thermal spraying have many advantages, such as the simple process, more coating and matrix options, the high efficiency of deposition, and the ease of their formation into complex coatings, they have become increasingly popular for protecting hydro turbines [46]. Furthermore, no significant changes in the microstructure of the substrates are encouraged during the deposition process, making thermal spray coatings a good choice for repairing components and preventing excessive wear. Various types of synthesized nano-powders can be used as the raw materials for thermal spraying processes like plasma spraying, HVOF spraying, detonation flame spraying, flame spraying, wire arc spraying, etc. The most common coating methods in the field of hydro turbines are as follows:

3.1. High-Velocity Air Fuel (HVAF) and High-Velocity Oxygen Fuel (HVOF) Spraying Processes

HVAF equipment provides an effective method for protecting hydro turbine components from the harmful effects of silt erosion. Coatings with excellent mechanical quality can be deposited using the HVOF spray technique. Due to the extremely high kinetic energies and relatively high temperatures (about 700 °C) used in this process, the deposited raw material powder particles have a very high cohesive strength [47]. For a typical HVOF coating, the adhesion at the coating–substrate interface can be up to 10 times higher than that in conventional flame spraying techniques [48]. The gas flow is created during the HVOF coating process by combining and combusting fuel (gas or liquid) and oxygen in a combustion chamber and then allowing the high-pressure gas to accelerate through a nozzle, as shown in Figure 5. This flow receives the raw material coating powder, which is heated and rises towards the component surface [49].
Thermal spray coatings based on nanostructured cobalt–tungsten carbide (WC-Co) have attracted a lot of attention in recent years due to their higher hardness, fracture toughness, and consequently increased wear resistance compared to these properties in their traditional counterparts. However, a long-standing challenge with thermal spraying of WC-Co-based nanostructured coatings is that they have a significant tendency to decarburize and dissolve, which can impair their mechanical quality [51]. HVOF spraying has the ability to provide near-nanostructured cermet coatings with lower rates of decarburization and/or coating disintegration to overcome this shortcoming. The microstructure and performance of HVOF-sprayed WC-Co-based nanostructured coatings have been the subject of numerous studies. Many scientists have shown that HVOF-sprayed WC-Co-based nanostructured coatings had higher resistance to wear, corrosion, and pitting erosion than that of conventional coatings and are better bonded to the substrate, with a high fraction of near-nano-WC grains retained, low porosity, and low quantities of harmful reaction products [52,53]. A recent study investigated a liquid fuel HVOF technique for the deposition of 15% cobalt matrix coatings reinforced with nano-tungsten carbide. Based on the results on the mechanical properties and microstructural characteristics of the coatings, the spraying procedure was optimized using statistically designed experiments [51]. The properties and pitting behavior of conventional and nanostructured WC-10Co-4Cr coatings sprayed using HVOF were examined by Thakur and Arora [54]. They found that the conventional coating was more prone to pitting in pure water than the nanostructured coating. Additionally, according to some published papers, the spray parameters significantly affected the microstructure and performance of HVOF-sprayed WC-Co-based nanostructured coatings. Based on studies conducted by Ghabchi et al. [55] and Ma et al. [56], the optimization of the WC’s size and structure can enhance the mechanical properties and wear resistance of HVOF-sprayed WC-based coatings. Scieska and Filipowicz [57] and Li et al. [58] stated that WC-based cermet coatings with a high volume fraction of fine WC particles exhibit high wear performance. As a result, WC-based nanostructured coatings have been widely investigated to improve the microhardness and wear performance of raw materials [59,60]. Tillmann et al. [61] reported the sliding and rolling wear behaviors in HVOF-sprayed WC-12Co nanostructured coatings. The pitting behavior and mechanisms of a nanostructured WC-10Co4Cr coating sprayed using HVOF in NaCl solution were investigated by Hong et al. [62]. Skandan et al. proposed a new type of micro–nano-WC-based coating composed of nano- and micro-WC grain sizes, which was expected to have a dense structure and an excellent anti-cavitation performance [63]. This coating is intended to prevent the decarburization of the nano-WC and reduce the cost of nanocoatings. However, there is still a lack of knowledge regarding the structure and characteristics of micro-nano-WC-CoCr coatings, such as their hardness, fracture toughness, and CE resistance in corrosive environments [64].
The slurry erosion behavior of three distinct ceramic coatings was investigated using HVOF spraying in real work. Powder feedstock with WC of fine-structured sizes, Cr3C2-NiCr 75-25, and NiCrWSiFeB of a normal grain size was used to create these coatings. A laboratory pot-type slurry erosion tester was used to evaluate the slurry erosion at impact angles of 30 and 90 degrees and impact velocities of 3.61 and 9.33 m/s. Microstructural studies were performed and the mechanical properties under erosion circumstances were examined and addressed in relation to the material removal process in slurry erosion. Due to its enhanced qualities, such as its low porosity and high microhardness and fracture toughness, the WC-CoCr cermet coating with fine WC grains was found to have a better erosion resistance than that of the conventional cermet coating [65]. The hypersonic high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) process was used to coat AISI 1020 substrates. Different powder particle sizes were created by agglomerating and sintering commercially available raw materials. The first type had a chemical composition associated with a coating of tungsten carbide nanostructured (primary carbide size of approximately 200–500 nm) WC-10Co4 Cr (1350 VM/WC-731-1/Praxair, Concord, NH, USA, with an agglomerated particle size of −45/+15 μm); the second one was associated with a conventionally structured chromium carbide coating (Cr3C2-NiCr 75-25 HC Starck Amperit® 588,074) and a metal compound NiCrWSiFeB coating (Colmonoy 88HV/Wall Colmonoy Corporation, with a particle size of 05/10 um). Table 3 displays the chemical composition of these various substances [65]. Also, SEM images of the powder materials used in these coatings are demonstrated in Figure 6.

3.2. The Plasma Spraying Process

Atmospheric plasma spraying (APS) is one thermal spraying method. Plasma-forming gases enter the spray gun, as shown in Figure 7, and are converted into a plasma state in the presence of arc energy sources [66].
Xu et al. deposited Ni60 and 5 wt% SiC-Ni60 coatings onto 304 stainless steel using atmospheric plasma spraying technology and investigated the tribological properties of these coatings under dry and water-lubricated conditions [67]. According to the reported results, the SiC nanoparticles act as reinforcing phases in the coatings. The 5 wt% SiC-Ni60 coating has a harder surface and a more compact microstructure than the Ni60 coating. Also, SiC nanoparticles have the capacity to reduce friction and resist wear. Kadiyala et al., in their research on the performance of SiC nanoparticles in enhancing the tribological performance of Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) [68], noted that the main reason for this improvement in characteristics was the formation of lubricating films. Singh et al. [69] investigated the tribological characteristics of conventional and nanostructured plasma-sprayed Cr2O3-TiO2 (97%Cr2O3, 3%TiO2) ceramic coatings (CC3T and NC3T, respectively), employing pin-on-disc dry sliding and pot-type slurry erosion tests, on 304 stainless steel. After the wear test, the microstructure of the coatings was analyzed using XRD, FE-SEM, and EDS techniques. Compared to the conventional powder coating (CC3T), the nanostructured powder coating (NC3T) was found to exhibit higher hardness and less porosity. Additionally, compared to CC3T, NC3T displayed higher wear resistance. At lower slurry concentrations than at higher concentrations, the NC3T coatings performed better than CC3T. By plasma-spraying reconstituted nanostructured particles using optimized procedures and considering a crucial plasma spraying parameter, Jordan et al. [70] studied a nanostructured alumina–titanium coating. Its resistance to cracking, adhesion strength, spallation resistance in bend and cup tests, abrasive wear resistance, and sliding wear resistance were among its superior mechanical properties. The lower the degree of melting of the nanostructured powders, the more the coatings retain their nanostructure and exhibit these excellent qualities. According to Zhang et al. [71], plasma-sprayed nanocrystalline powders effectively created a nanostructured Al2O3-13 wt.% TiO2 coating. XRD, SEM, and TEM were used to analyze the microstructures of the raw materials and coatings. The TEM results showed that there were melted -Al2O3 particles with a size of 20–70 nm in the TiO2 matrix.
For the AISI 304 and 316L stainless steels used in hydro turbines, nanomaterial coatings offer significant advantages over conventional coatings in terms of their fatigue resistance, erosion resistance, and cavitation resistance. Nanomaterial coatings offer better performance and durability than standard coatings, although these are more cost-effective and simpler to apply. This makes them a potential option for extending the service life of hydro turbine components under challenging conditions. However, the increased cost and complexity of nanomaterial coatings should be considered when selecting the right coating for a specific application [72,73,74]. In this regard, Table 4 compares the advantages of nanomaterial coatings compared to conventional coatings from different perspectives.

4. The Most Common Coatings Used in This Specific Industry

As previously shown, AISI 304 stainless steel is one of the best metals used in the manufacture of the main parts in hydro turbines, especially runner blades. Many techniques have also been proposed for reducing the effects of erosion caused by the influence of sediments and silt. In this regard, aluminide coatings are widely used in many applications to increase the corrosion and erosion resistance in a wide range of metals and alloys. In the case of AISI 304 stainless steel, it was reported that the CVD-FBR method is a very interesting method for surface modification because it can make aluminum diffusion coatings faster to apply and applicable at lower temperatures [75,76]. In order to create sub-stoichiometric β-NiAl, heat treatment at up to 900 °C for 4 h in an air atmosphere seems to be suitable. It appears that non-heat-treated specimens are very tough because the coating does not crack. Their Vickers microhardness values are higher than those of the metal matrix, especially where the coating meets the metal. After heat treatment, the microhardness of the coating shows an essentially Gaussian distribution centered on the coating. Moreover, these HV values are slightly higher than those in specimens that have not been exposed to heat. Additionally, due to their toughness and strong corrosion resistance potential, AISI 304 specimens with a heat-treated aluminum coating (β-NiAl) are useful [75]. In other study, 304 stainless steel was coated with RE-Cr/Ti using pack cementation. For this purpose, compact and continuous coatings were produced. The cross-sectional structure and XRD patterns were not significantly changed by the addition of La and Ce with distinct RE. According to the electrochemical measurements, the La2O3-Cr/Ti coatings demonstrated passivation behavior during the test phase, while the CeO2-Cr/Ti coatings did not. A Tafel analysis showed that following the RE-Cr/Ti treatment, the corrosion resistance increased, with a decrease in Icorr and a rise in Ecorr, and the CeO2-Cr/Ti coatings showed superior characteristics. Furthermore, significant plastic deformation, which is associated with adhesive wear, is responsible for the significant improvement in the wear resistance of La2O3-Cr/Ti. An excellent wear quality was achieved in the CeO2-Cr/Ti coatings due to their compact surface structure [77]. Another approach to solving the erosion problem in 304 stainless steel is TiN and Ti-SiC coatings [78,79]. For the GTA coating technique, a mechanical evaluation of the coated sample provided an overview in the following results:
  • The GTA coating technique enabled the successful fabrication of a wear-resistant Ti-SiC MMC surface.
  • The maximum microhardness of the coated layer was measured as 639 and 575 HV0.1 at 30% and 20% SiC constituents, respectively. Moreover, the substrate’s average microhardness was measured to be 237 HV0.1.
  • Against 400-grade sandpaper, the relative wear resistance of the coating with 30% and 20% SiC was 3.4 and 2.3 times higher than that of the steel substrate, respectively.
  • In the case of 304 steel substrates, the coefficient of friction (COF) increased for the 30% SiC coating and decreased for the 20% SiC coating [79].
WC-10Co-4Cr sprayed using HVOF and Ni-20Cr2O3-coated 304 SS are widely used to prevent the mechanical wear of hydro turbine blades. Different coating methods and heat treatment procedures for tungsten and nickel powders have been investigated to increase the material’s toughness [80]. An analysis was conducted on the abrasion wear performance of 304 SS coated with Ni-20Cr2O3 and WC-10Co-4Cr sprayed using HVOF. Also, many experiments were conducted to determine the relative erosion wear of coated and uncoated 304 SS considering the effect of various parameters, such as the rotation speed, time duration, solid concentration, etc. According to the findings of this study, the WC-10Co-4Cr coating provides a higher hardness than that of the Ni-20Cr2O3 coating. Among the parameters investigated, it was shown that the rotation speed was the most effective parameter in improving the erosion wear rate. For WC-10Co-4Cr-coated 304 SS with fly ash suspension, the ideal value for the minimum erosion wear was determined to be 1.08 g/m2 at N = 600 rpm, Cw30%, and a time of 90 min. Meanwhile, for Ni-20Cr2O3-coated 304 SS with sand, the highest erosion wear was measured to 3.59 g/m2 at N = 1500 rpm, Cw40%, and a time of 150 min. However, harder materials, e.g., WC and Cr, provide better wear resistance to erosion. Using the HVOF method, it was possible to coat 304 SS with powder particles of SiC-WC-Cr3C2 in the form of multilayers. This is considered one of the most efficient methods for treating major components, especially runner blades in hydro turbines, which are affected by silt erosion [81].
On the other hand, it has previously been shown that AISI 316 stainless steel is a special engineering alloy for the production of hydro turbine components due to its exceptional resistance to corrosion. In engineering applications, laser surface modification is a contemporary surface technology that has gained great popularity. Compared to alternative surface modification techniques, it has four key features: the construction of a fine microstructure; non-equilibrium alloying potential; the existence of a metallurgical bond between the surface layer and the substrate; and the creation of a small heat-affected zone. Laser surface modification is particularly suitable for the local treatment of areas vulnerable to erosion attack. After laser surface modification of AISI 316 stainless steel using fine WC powder, the following findings were obtained:
➢
The alloy samples subjected to laser surface treatment showed a significant improvement in their pitting erosion resistance (up to 30 times) compared to that of 316 SS. This remarkable improvement may be explained by the interdendritic carbide γ-FeCrNiW eutectic and the carbide dendrite microstructure.
➢
The microhardness of the alloy layer increases with an increase in the W concentration of the layer. This means that W is very important for producing complex carbide precipitates and solution hardening that strengthens the alloy layer. Furthermore, as the destructive effects of embrittlement increase at a higher hardness, the maximum resistance to pitting occurs at an average microhardness of about 1000 HV and decreases thereafter.
➢
The results of laboratory studies showed that a microstructure with fine precipitated carbides is more resistant than a structure with coarse and undissolved carbides to abrasive wear conditions [82].
In order to reduce the degree of dissolution, coarse-grained WC is used to coat metal (e.g., Co or Ni) to improve the resistance to abrasive wear [83]. Coarse ceramic particles may not be as useful in cavitation erosion as in abrasive wear due to the different attack methods. Compatible NiTi coatings can be used in a variety of industries that involve severe corrosive and/or wear conditions. Since NiTi alloy coatings have high wear resistance, attempts have been made to increase this feature without reducing the corrosion resistance in order to increase the application range of these coatings [84,85]. The effects of laser surface modification on the corrosion and wear behavior of NiTi-ZrO2 composite coatings on AISI 316 have been studied. It was reported that the surface hardness of the composite coatings was increased by adding ZrO2, from 270.5 HV with NiTi coatings to 471.5 HV with NiTi-10%ZrO2 coatings. Moreover, it was reported that as the ZrO2 content increased, the dry wear rate dropped. Conversely, when ZrO2 content was included, the wet wear rate was also the same. As the corrosion resistance decreased with an increasing ZrO2 content in the composite coatings, the wet wear rates were at least 60% higher than the dry wear rates for all coating compositions and under all applied loads [83]. Industry experience shows that the use of a CrN coating produced using PVD techniques is growing in popularity. In general, this is distinguished by high hardness, good wear resistance, a low friction coefficient, and strong corrosion resistance at very high temperatures. Pump and hydro turbine parts have been coated with chromium nitride due to its remarkable abrasion resistance [86,87].
The term “nano-effects” refers to the special or exceptional physical and chemical properties of nanomaterials that are not present in conventional materials [87]. The effect of the nanoscale can improve the toughness and wear resistance of nano-ceramic coating materials. Nano-ceramic coating materials made of nanoparticles are very durable, despite the fact that most ceramic materials are brittle. When they are exposed to external force deformation, the atoms move more easily due to the relatively irregular atomic arrangement resulting from the large surface of the nanomaterial. The ceramic material has special mechanical properties due to its remarkable toughness and considerable ductility [88]. The interfacial grains in the conventional coating gradually change from epitaxial to non-epitaxial growth due to the addition of appropriate nano-AlO3 particles. Moreover, fractures along the matrix interface are eliminated, and dispersed nano-AlO3 particles are mostly found along the cell substructure and grain boundaries. This prevents the dispersion of alloying elements and the formation of new phases. The effects of the nanoscale of nano-AlO3 particles are primarily responsible for improving the microstructure of the coating [89].
Table 5 presents a comparison of real data between nanoparticle alumina (Al2O3) and normal (microparticle) alumina used in anti-erosion coatings. These data are based on the general properties and performance metrics of these materials in protective coatings [89]. This comparison highlights the advantages of nanoparticle alumina in anti-erosion coatings, especially in demanding environments, despite its higher cost and process complexity.

5. Summary

Stainless steels 304 and 316 have high technical specifications in terms of their resistance to corrosion and mechanical wear, but due to their use in hydro turbines, they are constantly subjected to erosion by sand sediments in the water. Over time, this erosion leads to the breakdown and complete failure of the turbine, which stops hydropower plants from generating electricity. An extensive analysis of nanotechnology and its applications was presented in the current review article. Since nanotechnology uses quantum confinement and a high surface-to-volume ratio, it can tune the material properties down to the atomic level, producing exceptional material qualities quite distinct from those of the base materials. Compared to conventional coatings, nanostructured coatings show superior resistance to corrosion and erosion. Furthermore, it is clear that designing and developing a more efficient system with minimal losses are the basic needs of today’s industry. These current needs can be met with high precision through the application of nanoscience. Nanostructured coatings in hydro turbine applications, especially in runner blades, are an example of the widespread uses of nanotechnology in this field. Finally, future research directions were presented based on the gaps in the past research and the material collected in this article. The main goal of the authors in their new research is to develop a coating formula with a suitable composition, conditional on the use of nanoparticles of alumina and titanium carbide. Anti-erosion coatings with a combination of nano alumina and nano titanium carbide are expected to provide superior protection against wear, erosion, and corrosion. Their unique properties make them ideal for use in hydropower applications, where they can significantly enhance the performance and lifespan of critical components.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: K.R.K. Methodology: K.R.K., W.K.M.R. and S.G. Software: W.K.M.R. Validation: K.R.K., W.K.M.R. and S.G. Formal analysis: K.R.K., W.K.M.R. and S.G. Investigation: K.R.K., W.K.M.R. and S.G. Resources: K.R.K. Data curation: K.R.K. Writing—original draft preparation: W.K.M.R. and S.G. Writing—review and editing: K.R.K. Visualization: K.R.K. Supervision: K.R.K. and S.G. Project administration: K.R.K. Funding acquisition: K.R.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets can be made available upon request by the corresponding author.

Acknowledgments

This paper was supported by the RUDN University Strategic Academic Leadership Program.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Dincer, I. Renewable energy and sustainable development: A crucial review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2000, 4, 157–175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Gyamfi, S.; Derkyi, N.S.A.; Asuamah, E.Y.; Aduako, I.J.A. Renewable Energy and Sustainable Development. In Sustainable Hydropower in West Africa; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2018; pp. 75–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Nautiyal, H.; Goel, V. Sustainability assessment of hydropower projects. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 265, 121661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Khalid Mohammed Ridha, W.; Reza Kashyzadeh, K.; Ghorbani, S. Common failures in hydraulic Kaplan turbine blades and practical solutions. Materials 2023, 16, 3303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Padhy, M.K.; Saini, R.P. A review on silt erosion in hydro turbines. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2008, 12, 1974–1987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Mann, B. High-energy particle impact wear resistance of hard coatings and their application in hydro turbines. Wear 2000, 237, 140–146. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Mohammad Ridha, W.K.; Reza Kashyzadeh, K.; Ghorbani, S. Influence of Sediment Particle Size on Erosion Rate of AISI 304 Stainless Steel. In Advances in Intelligent Manufacturing and Robotics; Tan, A., Zhu, F., Jiang, H., Mostafa, K., Yap, E.H., Chen, L., Olule, L.J., Myung, H., Eds.; Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems; Springer Nature: Singapore, 2024; p. 845. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Padhy, M.K.; Saini, R.P. Effect of size and concentration of silt particles on erosion of Pelton turbine buckets. Energy 2009, 34, 1477–1483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Llewellyn, R.J.; Yick, S.K.; Dolman, K.F. Scouring erosion resistance of metallic materials used in slurry pump service. Wear 2004, 256, 592–599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Hamzah, R.; Stephenson, D.J.; Strutt, J.E. Erosion of material used in petroleum production. Wear 1995, 186–187, 493–496. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Ben-Ami, Y.; Uzi, A.; Levy, A. Modelling the particles impingement angle to produce maximum erosion. Powder Technol. 2016, 301, 1032–1043. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Neopane, H.P.; Dahlhaug, O.G.; Cervantes, M. Sediment erosion in hydraulic turbines. Glob. J. Res. Eng. 2011, 11, 17–26. [Google Scholar]
  13. Dorji, U.; Ghomashchi, R. Hydro turbine failure mechanisms: An overview. Eng. Fail. Anal. 2014, 44, 136–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Kashyap, T.; Thakur, R.; Ngo, G.H.; Lee, D.; Fekete, G.; Kumar, R.; Singh, T. Silt erosion and cavitation impact on hydraulic turbines performance: An in-depth analysis and preventative strategies. Heliyon 2024, 10, e28998. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Brijkishore, K.R.; Prasad, V. Prediction of cavitation and its mitigation techniques in hydraulic turbines—A review. Ocean Eng. 2021, 221, 108512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Rus, T.; Dular, M.; Širok, B.; Hočevar, M.; Kern, I. An Investigation of the Relationship Between Acoustic Emission, Vibration, Noise, and Cavitation Structures on a Kaplan Turbine. J. Fluids Eng. 2007, 129, 1112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Ghiban, B.; Safta, C.-A.; Ion, M.; Crângașu, C.E.; Grecu, M.-C. Structural Aspects of Silt Erosion Resistant Materials Used in Hydraulic Machines Manufacturing. Energy Procedia 2017, 112, 75–82. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Wood, R.J.K. Erosion–corrosion interactions and their effect on marine and offshore materials. Wear 2006, 261, 1012–1023. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Kashyzadeh, K.R.; Arghavan, A. Study of the effect of different industrial coating with microscale thickness on the CK45 steel by experimental and finite element methods. Strength Mater. 2013, 45, 748–757. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Arghavan, A.; Reza Kashyzadeh, K.; Asfarjani, A.A. Investigating effect of industrial coatings on fatigue damage. Appl. Mech. Mater. 2011, 87, 230–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Kashyzadeh, K.R.; Ghorbani, S. Comparison of some selected time-domain fatigue failure criteria dedicated for multi input random non-proportional loading conditions in industrial components. Eng. Fail. Anal. 2023, 143, 106907. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Kjolle, A. Hydropower in Norway—Mechanical Equipment; Chapter 14; Norwegian University of Science and Technology: Trondheim, Norway, 2001. [Google Scholar]
  23. Momcilovic, D.B.; Motrovic, R.; Antanasovska, I.; Vuherer, T. Methodology of determination the influence of corrosion pit on the decrease of hydro turbine shaft fatigue failure. Mach. Des. 2012, 4, 231–236. Available online: https://hdl.handle.net/21.15107/rcub_machinery_1437 (accessed on 1 November 2024).
  24. Frunzǎverde, D.; Muntean, S.; Mǎrginean, G.; Câmpian, V.; Marşavina, L.; Terzi, R.; Şerban, V. Failure analysis of a Francis turbine runner. Earth Environ. Sci. 2010, 12, 012115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Muhsen, A.A.; Al-Malik, A.A.R.; Attiya, B.H.; Al-Hardanee, O.F.; Abdalazize, K.A. Modal analysis of Kaplan turbine in Haditha hydropower plant using ANSYS and SolidWorks. In Proceedings of the Black Sea Summit 7th International Applied Science Congress, Istanbul, Turkey, 28–29 August 2021. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Liu, Z.; Liu, E.; Du, S.; Zhang, J.; Wang, L.; Du, H.; Cai, H. Tribocorrosion Behavior of Typical Austenitic, Martensitic, and Ferritic Stainless Steels in 3.5% NaCl Solution. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2021, 30, 6284–6296. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Kumar, A.; Odeh, A.A.; Myers, J.R. Mechanical Properties and Corrosion Behavior of Stainless Steels for Locks, Dams, and Hydroelectric Plant Applications; Technical Report REMR-EM-6; U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ Construction Engineering Research Laboratory: Springfield, VA, USA, 1989. [Google Scholar]
  28. Zhao, Y.; Zhou, F.; Yao, J.; Dong, S.; Li, N. Erosion–corrosion behavior and corrosion resistance of AISI 316 stainless steel in flow jet impingement. Wear 2015, 328–329, 464–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Zhao, Y.-L.; Tang, C.-Y.; Yao, J.; Zeng, Z.-H.; Dong, S.-G. Investigation of erosion behavior of 304 stainless steel under solid–liquid jet flow impinging at 30°. Pet. Sci. 2020, 17, 1135–1150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Vitos, L.; Korzhavyi, P.A.; Johansson, B. Evidence of Large Magnetostructural Effects in Austenitic Stainless Steels. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2006, 96, 117210. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Stainless Steels for Design Engineers (#05231G); ASM International: Detroit, MI, USA, 2008; Chapter 6; pp. 69–78. ISBN 978-0-87170-717-8. Available online: https://www.asminternational.org/search/-/journal_content/56/10192/05231G/PUBLICATION (accessed on 20 October 2024).
  32. Microstructures in Austenitic Stainless Steels: Total Materia Article. Available online: https://www.totalmateria.com (accessed on 23 June 2020).
  33. Tong, C. Introduction to Materials for Advanced Energy Systems; Springer International Publishing: Cham, Switzerland, 2019. [Google Scholar]
  34. Quaranta, E. Estimation of the permanent weight load of water wheels for civil engineering and hydropower applications and dataset collection. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2020, 40, 100776. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Habara, Y. Stainless Steel 200 Series: An Opportunity for Mn; Archived 8 March 2014 at the Wayback Machine; Technical Development Department, Nippon Metal Industry, Co., Ltd.: Hekinan, Japan, 2014. [Google Scholar]
  36. Shaigan, N.; Qu, W.; Ivey, D.; Chen, W. A review of recent progress in coatings, surface modifications and alloy developments for solid oxide fuel cell ferritic stainless steel interconnects. J. Power Sources 2010, 195, 1529–1542. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Iwamoto, T.; Pham, H.T. Review on Spatio-Temporal Multiscale Phenomena in TRIP Steels and Enhancement of Its Energy Absorption. In From Creep Damage Mechanics to Homogenization Methods: A Liber Amicorum to Celebrate the Birthday of Nobutada Ohno; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2015; pp. 143–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Iwamoto, T. Computational simulation on deformation behavior of CT specimens of TRIP steel under mode I loading for evaluation of fracture toughness. Int. J. Plast. 2002, 18, 1583–1606. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Sahin, M. Evaluation of the joint-interface properties of austenitic-stainless steels (AISI 304) joined by friction welding. Mater. Des. 2007, 28, 2244–2250. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Raja Narayananl, S.; Balakrishnan, M.; Pradeep, G.K.; Ragavan, M.; Nirmal Kumar, S. Mechanical and Microstructure Properties Evaluation of Tig Welded Dissimilar Metal Ss304-Ss316. Ann. Rom. Soc. Cell Biol. 2021, 25, 2124–2134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Setyowati, V.A.; Abdul, F.; Ariyadi, S. Effect of welding methods for different carbon content of ss304 and ss304l materials on the mechanical properties and microstructure. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2021, 1010, 012018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Azmi, M.A.C. Effect of Heat Treatment on Corrosion Behavior of Ss316 Stainless Steel in Simulated Body Environment. Bachelor’s Thesis, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, Pekan, Malaysia, December 2010. [Google Scholar]
  43. ASM Handbook: Volume 4: Heat Treating (Asm Handbook), 10th ed.; ASM International: Detroit, MI, USA, 1991.
  44. Song, R.B.; Xiang, J.Y.; Hou, D.P. Characteristics of mechanical properties and microstructure for 316L austenitic stainless steel. J. Iron Steel Res. Int. 2011, 18, 53–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Roy, M.; Pauschitz, A.; Polak, R.; Franek, F. Comparative evaluation of ambient temperature friction behaviour of thermal sprayed Cr3C2–25(Ni20Cr) coatings with conventional and nano-crystalline grains. Tribol. Int. 2006, 39, 29–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Zhang, G.; Zhang, J.; Zhou, X.; Sun, D. Synthesis of High Wear and Corrosion Resistance Coating for Hydraulic Turbine Transition Parts. Surf. Technol. 2004, 33, 4–6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Kumar Goyal, D.; Singh, H.; Kumar, H.; Sahni, V. Slurry erosion behaviour of HVOF sprayed WC–10Co–4Cr and Al2O3+13TiO2 coatings on a turbine steel. Wear 2012, 289, 46–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Harvey, D. The tough truth—Wear-resistant coatings using high velocity oxyfuel. Ind. Lubr. Tribol. 1996, 48, 11–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Sharma, V.; Kaur, M.; Bhandari, S. Micro and nano ceramic-metal composite coatings by thermal spray process to control slurry erosion in hydroturbine steel: An overview. Eng. Res. Express 2019, 1, 012001. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. El-Eskandarany, M.S. Utilization of ball-milled powders for surface protective coating. In Mechanical Alloying; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2020; pp. 309–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Bartuli, C.; Valente, T.; Cipri, F.; Bemporad, E.; Tului, M. Parametric study of an HVOF process for the deposition of nanostructured WC-Co coatings. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2005, 14, 187–195. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. He, J.; Ice, M.; Lavernia, E.J.; Dallek, S. Synthesis of nanostructured WC-12 pct Co coating using mechanical milling and high velocity oxygen fuel thermal spraying. Metall. Mater. Trans. A 2000, 31, 541–553. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Yang, M.; Jin, Q.; Huang, T.; Kong, D.; Song, P. Effect of Cr3C2 distribution on the wear and corrosion properties of HVOF-sprayed WC–12Co/Cr3C2–25NiCr composite coatings. Ceram. Int. 2024, 50, 19720–19732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Thakur, L.; Arora, N. A study on erosive wear behavior of HVOF sprayed nanostructured WC-CoCr coatings. J. Mech. Sci. Technol. 2013, 27, 1461–1467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Ghabchi, A.; Varis, T.; Turunen, E.; Suhonen, T.; Liu, X.; Hannula, S.-P. Behavior of HVOF WC-10Co4Cr Coatings with Different Carbide Size in Fine and Coarse Particle Abrasion. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2009, 19, 368–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Ma, N.; Guo, L.; Cheng, Z.; Wu, H.; Ye, F.; Zhang, K. Improvement on mechanical properties and wear resistance of HVOF sprayed WC-12Co coatings by optimizing feedstock structure. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2014, 320, 364–371. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Sciezka, S.F.; Filipowicz, K. An integrated testing method for cermet abrasion resistance and fracture toughness evaluation. Wear 1998, 216, 202–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Li, C.-J.; Ohmori, A.; Tani, K. Effect of WC Particle Size on the Abrasive Wear of Thermally Sprayed WC-Co Coatings. Mater. Manuf. Process. 1999, 14, 175–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Gee, M.G.; Gant, A.; Roebuck, B. Wear mechanisms in abrasion and erosion of WC/Co and related hard metals. Wear 2007, 263, 137–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Guilemany, J.M.; Dosta, S.; Miguel, J.R. The enhancement of the properties of WC-Co HVOF coatings through the use of nanostructured and microstructured feedstock powders. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2006, 201, 1180–1190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Tillmann, W.; Baumann, I.; Hollingsworth, P.S.; Hagen, L. Sliding and Rolling Wear Behavior of HVOF-Sprayed Coatings Derived from Conventional, Fine and Nanostructured WC-12Co Powders. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2013, 23, 262–280. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Hong, S.; Wu, Y.; Zhang, J.; Zheng, Y.; Qin, Y.; Lin, J. Ultrasonic cavitation erosion of high-velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF) sprayed near-nanostructured WC–10Co–4Cr coating in NaCl solution. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2015, 26, 87–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  63. Skandan, G.; Yao, R.; Sadangi, R.; Kear, B.H.; Qiao, Y.; Liu, L.; Fischer, T.E. Multimodal Coatings: A New Concept in Thermal Spraying. J. Therm. Spray Technol. 2000, 9, 329–331. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Ding, X.; Cheng, X.-D.; Li, C.; Yu, X.; Ding, Z.-X.; Yuan, C.-Q. Microstructure and performance of multi-dimensional WC-CoCr coating sprayed by HVOF. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 2017, 96, 1625–1633. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Reyes Mojena, M.A.; Sánchez Orozco, M.; Carvajal Fals, H.; Sagaró Zamora, R.; Camello Lima, C.R. A comparative study on slurry erosion behavior of HVOF sprayed coatings. Dyna 2017, 84, 239–246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Shang, S.; Guduri, B.; Cybulsky, M.; Batra, R.C. Effect of Turbulence Modulation on Three-Dimensional Trajectories of Powder Particles in a Plasma Spray Process. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 2014, 47, 405206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Xu, J.; Zhang, C.; Sun, G.; Xiao, J.; Zhang, L.; Zhang, G. Role of SiC nanoparticles on tribological properties of atmospheric plasma sprayed 5 wt% SiC–Ni60 coatings. Tribol. Int. 2020, 146, 106220. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Kadiyala, A.; Bijwe, J.; Kalappa, P. Investigations on influence of nano and micron sized particles of SiC on performance properties of PPEK coatings. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2018, 334, 124–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Singh, V.P.; Sil, A.; Jayaganthan, R. Tribological behavior of plasma sprayed Cr2O3–3% TiO2 coatings. Wear 2011, 272, 149–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Jordan, E.H.; Gell, M.; Sohn, Y.H.; Goberman, D.; Shaw, L.; Jiang, S.; Wang, M.; Xiao, T.D.; Wang, Y.; Strutt, P. Fabrication and evaluation of plasma sprayed nanostructured alumina–titania coatings with superior properties. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2001, 301, 80–89. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Zhang, J.; He, J.; Dong, Y.; Li, X.; Yan, D. Microstructure characteristics of Al2O3–13wt.% TiO2 coating plasma spray deposited with nanocrystalline powders. J. Mater. Process. Technol. 2008, 197, 31–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Wang, L.; Mao, J.; Xue, C.; Ge, H.; Dong, G.; Zhang, Q.; Yao, J. Cavitation-Erosion behavior of laser cladded Low-Carbon Cobalt-Based alloys on 17-4PH stainless steel. Opt. Laser Technol. 2023, 158, 108761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Vikhareva, I.N.; Antipin, V.E. Modern strategies for the creation of polymer coatings: Part I. Nanotechnol. Constr. 2024, 16, 32–43. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Li, D.G.; Chen, D.R.; Liang, P. Enhancement of Cavitation Erosion Resistance of 316L Stainless Steel by Adding Molybdenum. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2017, 35, 375–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  75. Pérez, F.J.; Pedraza, F.; Hierro, M.P.; Hou, P.Y. Adhesion properties of aluminide coatings deposited via CVD in fluidised bed reactors (CVD-FBR) on AISI 304 stainless steel. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2000, 133, 338–343. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Chen, C.; Sui, L.; Zhang, M. Effects of Different Oxidation Methods on the Wetting and Diffusion Characteristics of a High-Alumina Glass Sealant on 304 Stainless Steel. Materials 2024, 17, 2251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  77. Xing, X.; Wang, H.; Lu, P.; Han, Z. Influence of rare earths on electrochemical corrosion and wear resistance of RE–Cr/Ti pack coatings on cemented 304 stainless steel. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2016, 291, 151–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Bahri, A.; Kaçar, E.; Akkaya, S.S.; Elleuch, K.; Ürgen, M. Wear protection potential of TiN coatings for 304 stainless steels used in rotating parts during olive oil extraction. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2016, 304, 560–566. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Kumar, A.; Kumar Ram, R.; Kumar Das, A. Mechanical characteristics of Ti-SiC metal matrix composite coating on AISI 304 steel by gas tungsten arc (GTA) coating process. Mater. Today Proc. 2019, 17, 111–117. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Singh, J.; Kumar, S.; Mohapatra, S.K. Tribological analysis of WC–10Co–4Cr and Ni–20Cr2O3 coating on stainless steel 304. Wear 2017, 376–377, 1105–1111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Rao, K.V.S.; Girisha, K.G.; Jamuna, K.; Tejaswini, G.C. Erosion Behaviour of HVOF Sprayed SiC-WC-Cr3C2 Multilayer Coating on 304 Stainless Steel. Mater. Today Proc. 2018, 5, 24685–24690. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Lo, K.H.; Cheng, F.T.; Kwok, C.T.; Man, H.C. Improvement of cavitation erosion resistance of AISI 316 stainless steel by laser surface alloying using fine WC powder. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2003, 165, 258–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  83. Wang, Q.Y.; Wang, X.Z.; Luo, H.; Luo, J.L. A study on corrosion behaviors of Ni–Cr–Mo laser coating, 316 stainless steel and X70 steel in simulated solutions with H2S and CO2. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2016, 291, 250–257. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  84. Lepule, M.L.; Obadele, B.A.; Andrews, A.; Olubambi, P.A. Corrosion and wear behaviour of ZrO2 modified NiTi coatings on AISI 316 stainless steel. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2015, 261, 21–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  85. Dong, H.; Qi, P.-Y.; Li, X.Y.; Llewellyn, R.J. Improving the erosion–corrosion resistance of AISI 316 austenitic stainless steel by low-temperature plasma surface alloying with N and C. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2006, 431, 137–145. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  86. Vite, M.; Moreno-Ríos, M.; Gallardo Hernández, E.A.; Laguna-Camacho, J.R. A study of the abrasive resistance of sputtered CrN coatings deposited on AISI 316 and AISI H13 steel substrates using steel particles. Wear 2011, 271, 1273–1279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  87. Sharma, P.; Singh, V.; Singla, A.K.; Bansal, A.; Singla, J.; Goyal, D.K. Cavitation Erosion Investigations of Hard Carbide and Nitride Based Novel Coatings Manufactured by Plasma Spraying. Tribol. Trans. 2024, 67, 311–322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. Gu, Y.; Xia, K.; Wu, D.; Mou, J.; Zheng, S. Technical Characteristics and Wear-Resistant Mechanism of Nano Coatings: A Review. Coatings 2020, 10, 233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  89. Liang, X.B.; Shang, J.C.; Chen, Y.X.; Zhou, Z.D.; Zhang, Z.B.; Xu, B.S. Influence of ceramic particles and process parameters on residual stress of flame-sprayed Fe-based coatings. Surf. Coat. Technol. 2018, 354, 10–17. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Cmd 06 00006 g001
Figure 1. Silt erosion of one of the Haditha HHP’s Kaplan turbines (images provided by the Iraqi Ministry of Electricity).
Figure 1. Silt erosion of one of the Haditha HHP’s Kaplan turbines (images provided by the Iraqi Ministry of Electricity).
Cmd 06 00006 g001
Cmd 06 00006 g002
Figure 2. Signs of the cavitation phenomenon in a Haditha HHP Kaplan turbine runner blade (images provided by the Iraqi Ministry of Electricity).
Figure 2. Signs of the cavitation phenomenon in a Haditha HHP Kaplan turbine runner blade (images provided by the Iraqi Ministry of Electricity).
Cmd 06 00006 g002
Cmd 06 00006 g003
Figure 3. Serious damages occurred in the Haditha HHP’s Kaplan turbines: (A) runner blade erosion–corrosion; (B) wicket gates (images provided by the Iraqi Ministry of Electricity).
Figure 3. Serious damages occurred in the Haditha HHP’s Kaplan turbines: (A) runner blade erosion–corrosion; (B) wicket gates (images provided by the Iraqi Ministry of Electricity).
Cmd 06 00006 g003
Cmd 06 00006 g004
Figure 4. Failure of runner blade due to fatigue cracks in Haditha hydropower plant [25].
Figure 4. Failure of runner blade due to fatigue cracks in Haditha hydropower plant [25].
Cmd 06 00006 g004
Cmd 06 00006 g005
Figure 5. (A) A schematic diagram of the HVOF equipment; (B) photo of the gun during the spraying process with HVOF [50].
Figure 5. (A) A schematic diagram of the HVOF equipment; (B) photo of the gun during the spraying process with HVOF [50].
Cmd 06 00006 g005
Cmd 06 00006 g006
Figure 6. SEM images of powdered materials: (a) 1350 VM/WC-731-1, (b) Cr3C2-NiCr AMPERIT 75-25, and (c) Colmonoy 88HV [65].
Figure 6. SEM images of powdered materials: (a) 1350 VM/WC-731-1, (b) Cr3C2-NiCr AMPERIT 75-25, and (c) Colmonoy 88HV [65].
Cmd 06 00006 g006
Cmd 06 00006 g007
Figure 7. A schematic of a typical DC thermal plasma spraying process [66].
Figure 7. A schematic of a typical DC thermal plasma spraying process [66].
Cmd 06 00006 g007
Table 1. Classification of erosion conditions in reaction turbines [12].
Table 1. Classification of erosion conditions in reaction turbines [12].
Type of ErosionLocationFlow VelocityImpingement Angle
ISpiral casing and draft tubeLowSmall
IIRunner blade and guide vaneHighSmall
IIIWearing ringHighLarge due to vortex and turbulence
Table 2. Characteristics of erosion conditions in reaction turbines.
Table 2. Characteristics of erosion conditions in reaction turbines.
Type of Stainless SteelCharacteristics Against CorrosionCharacteristics Against WearAdvantagesDisadvantages
AISI 304Good resistance to general corrosion, especially in mild environments. Susceptible to pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride-rich environments.Moderate wear resistance.Low cost, excellent formability, and weldability.Lower corrosion resistance in harsh environments compared to that of AISI 316.
AISI 316Excellent corrosion resistance, including pitting and crevice corrosion in chloride environments due to its molybdenum content.Good wear resistance.Good mechanical properties and weldability.A higher cost than that of AISI 304 due to its molybdenum content.
Duplex 2205Excellent resistance to stress corrosion cracking, pitting, and crevice corrosion, especially in chloride-rich environments.Excellent wear resistance due to high hardness.High strength and good toughness.Higher cost and more difficult to machine than austenitic grades.
AISI 410 (Martensitic)Moderate corrosion resistance, suitable for mild environments. Prone to rusting in harsh conditions.Excellent wear resistance due to high hardness.High strength and hardness.Poor corrosion resistance in harsh environments, brittle.
AISI 17-4 PH (Precipitation Hardening)Good corrosion resistance, better than AISI 410 but lower than AISI 316.Excellent wear resistance due to high hardness.High strength and toughness.Expensive and complex heat treatment is required.
Table 3. Nominal composition of coatings deposited using the HVOF method [65].
Table 3. Nominal composition of coatings deposited using the HVOF method [65].
Materials%Wt
CWCoCrBNiSiFeOthers
13505.4Bal10.14.2----<0.1
752511.0--Bal-19.0--0.002
88HV0.816.5-15.03.0Bal4.03.5-
Table 4. Comparison between traditional and nanoparticle coatings from different perspectives.
Table 4. Comparison between traditional and nanoparticle coatings from different perspectives.
PropertyTraditional CoatingsNanomaterial Coatings
Erosion resistanceModerate to high, depending on materialHigh, due to enhanced hardness and toughness
Cavitation resistanceModerate, prone to micro-crackingHigh, due to better cohesion and flexibility
Fatigue strengthModerate, can suffer from delaminationHigh, due to improved adhesion and flexibility
Adhesion to substrateGood but can vary with surface preparationExcellent, due to nanoscale bonding
Corrosion resistanceGood but can degrade over timeExcellent, due to dense and uniform structure
Thermal stabilityModerate to highHigh, due to stable nanoscale structures
CostGenerally lowerHigher, due to advanced manufacturing processes
Application complexityRelatively simpleMore complex, requiring precise control
DurabilityGood but may require frequent maintenanceExcellent, with a longer service life
Table 5. Actual comparison between nanoparticle alumina (Al2O3) and normal (microparticle) alumina used in anti-erosion coatings [89].
Table 5. Actual comparison between nanoparticle alumina (Al2O3) and normal (microparticle) alumina used in anti-erosion coatings [89].
PropertyNanoparticle Alumina (Al2O3)Normal (Microparticle) Alumina (Al2O3)
Particle size1–100 nm1–100 µm (micrometers)
Surface areaHigh (50–200 m2/g)Low (1–10 m2/g)
Hardness~20 GPa (nano-enhanced)~15 GPa
Wear resistanceExcellent (due to fine grain structure and high hardness)Good (but lower than nanoparticles)
Erosion resistanceSuperior (better particle bonding and denser coating)Moderate (less dense coating, prone to micro-cracking)
Coating adhesionStronger (improved interfacial bonding)Weaker (due to larger particle size)
Surface roughnessSmoother (nanoscale particles fill micro-defects)Rougher (larger particles create uneven surfaces)
Thermal stabilityExcellent (stable up to ~1000 °C)Good (stable up to ~800 °C)
Corrosion resistanceEnhanced (denser coating, fewer pores)Moderate (more porous coating)
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Reza Kashyzadeh, K.; Ridha, W.K.M.; Ghorbani, S. The Influence of Nanocoatings on the Wear, Corrosion, and Erosion Properties of AISI 304 and AISI 316L Stainless Steels: A Critical Review Regarding Hydro Turbines. Corros. Mater. Degrad. 2025, 6, 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6010006

AMA Style

Reza Kashyzadeh K, Ridha WKM, Ghorbani S. The Influence of Nanocoatings on the Wear, Corrosion, and Erosion Properties of AISI 304 and AISI 316L Stainless Steels: A Critical Review Regarding Hydro Turbines. Corrosion and Materials Degradation. 2025; 6(1):6. https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6010006

Chicago/Turabian Style

Reza Kashyzadeh, Kazem, Waleed Khalid Mohammed Ridha, and Siamak Ghorbani. 2025. "The Influence of Nanocoatings on the Wear, Corrosion, and Erosion Properties of AISI 304 and AISI 316L Stainless Steels: A Critical Review Regarding Hydro Turbines" Corrosion and Materials Degradation 6, no. 1: 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6010006

APA Style

Reza Kashyzadeh, K., Ridha, W. K. M., & Ghorbani, S. (2025). The Influence of Nanocoatings on the Wear, Corrosion, and Erosion Properties of AISI 304 and AISI 316L Stainless Steels: A Critical Review Regarding Hydro Turbines. Corrosion and Materials Degradation, 6(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6010006

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop