The Papacy as Intangible Cultural Heritage

Abstract

This article explores the papacy as a multifaceted form of cultural heritage, emphasizing the pope not only as a religious leader but also as a living symbol and institutional embodiment of Catholic heritage. Positioned at the intersection of theology, history, and heritage science, the study seeks to bridge the gap between spiritual authority and cultural memory by introducing a novel interpretive category: the pope as a living component of intangible religious heritage. The research combines a comprehensive literature review with an analysis of papal documentation, especially papal constitutions. Special attention is given to public engagement with the papacy, as reflected in internet search trends during significant ecclesiastical events such as papal deaths and conclaves. The results indicate that the pope functions as a living link in the continuity of Catholic identity, with digital indicators revealing peaks of global interest aligned with pivotal moments in Church leadership. The study also defines the roles and functions of the pope as a narrative bearer, initiator, and symbolic custodian of papal cultural heritage. Overall, the findings reinforce the papacy’s dual role as both a theological and sociocultural institution, offering new perspectives for understanding religious leadership as a medium of cultural transmission and public relevance in a digitized world.

1. Introduction

The death of a pope and the election of his successor are among the most widely followed events in the modern world. For centuries, they have marked successive stages in the mission of the Catholic Church. Owing to the speed and reach of modern communication, these events attract the attention not only of members of other Christian denominations but also of non-believers, resonating with a rich cultural legacy that transcends religious boundaries. The papal legacy is inextricably linked to religious heritage, as the pope—leader of one of the world’s largest religions [1]—is both a moral authority and a living symbol of the two-thousand-year cultural heritage of Catholicism.

Applying the structure of the cultural heritage concept proposed by M. Vecco [2], the papal heritage undeniably encompasses values—historical, social, scholarly, and even spiritual—recognized by society as worthy of preservation. This heritage includes tangible elements such as buildings, monuments, artworks, artifacts, documents, and historical sites, as well as intangible elements such as rites, traditions, and even procedures and functions shaped and upheld for centuries. It also encompasses social practices such as pilgrimages to meet the pope, papal audiences, and Urbi et Orbi blessings (“to the City and to the World”), along with values associated with the pope’s moral and religious authority.

The uniqueness of papal heritage lies in the historical continuity of the office of the Bishop of Rome, which, in Catholic tradition, is understood as apostolic succession [2]. It is also embodied in the person of the pope himself, as a living symbol of Catholic heritage. The symbolic significance of this office is shaped by two millennia of ritual, doctrine, and the representation of spiritual authority, making the papacy one of the most enduring examples of religious-institutional cultural heritage.

Each successive pope is both a spiritual leader and the vicar of Christ on Earth, endowed with the so-called power of the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven (Gospel of Matthew 16:19) [3]. This authority includes the full magisterial power of teaching (munus docendi), whereby the pope, considered infallible in matters of faith and morals, leads the Church’s Magisterium [4]. It also includes the power of governance (munus regendi), under which, like a monarch, he exercises supreme, full, immediate, and universal ordinary jurisdiction over the Church [5]. As Bishop of Rome, the pope also holds the power of sanctification (munus sanctificandi) through the administration of the sacraments, the liturgy, and spiritual guidance [6]. At the same time, he serves as the guardian of the millennia-old legacy of the papacy—preserving, sustaining, and often creatively expanding it. In this way, even contemporary elements of Christian (Catholic) culture with symbolic and identity-forming significance for believers take the form of cultural heritage.

Recent research on the authority of the Catholic clergy shows that the pope is one of the most positively viewed figures within the Catholic Church today [7]. Among Polish Catholics of Generation Z in 2024, trust in the pope was remarkably high, regardless of whether respondents were devout practitioners or individuals living contrary to Church teachings. This level of trust significantly exceeded that placed in other clergy, such as bishops and parish priests, and even in the institutional Church itself.

Modern digital technologies make it possible to monitor public interest in specific events in near real-time. One indicator of such interest is internet search data, which allows for the identification of periods when users show heightened engagement with a topic. Figure 1 presents global Google search frequency for the term “Pope” beginning in 2004.

Notable peaks correspond to the deaths of three popes and the convening of three conclaves. Strikingly, interest in the pope reached its highest point upon the death of Pope John Paul II (2 April 2005). Another significant spike occurred following the death of Pope Francis (21 April 2025), the conclave that elected Leo XIV (7–8 May 2025), and during Pope Francis’s pilgrimage to the United States (22–27 September 2015). Interestingly, despite the exponential increase in global internet access over the past 20 years, the death of John Paul II still generated the greatest volume of searches. Also notable is the relative lack of online attention at the death of Pope Emeritus Benedict XVI (31 December 2022)—a pope who had abdicated and, as such, was no longer seen as an active custodian of the papal heritage.

The scholarly literature rarely addresses the issue of papal cultural heritage, and even more rarely considers the person of the pope as its integral component. However, in light of the concept of living heritage [8], the pope may be understood as a dynamic carrier of intangible cultural heritage. In Catholic theology, the pope’s unique role derives from apostolic succession, originating in Christ’s conferral of leadership on the Apostle Peter. On the UNESCO World Heritage List [9], elements related to the papacy appear only collectively—under the name Vatican City—classified as a “monument-state,” without recognition of the intangible aspects of the tradition. Yet from the perspective of contemporary heritage studies, papal heritage may be viewed as a distinct form of religious-institutional heritage, in which the reigning pope remains an indispensable element. His teachings and decisions shape the pontificate and serve as the means by which values, norms, and practices are transmitted across generations—making both the office and the person of the pope a key symbol of the Catholic Church’s continuity [10,11,12].

To date, studies on religious heritage have largely focused on its tangible and intangible aspects, often overlooking the significance of individuals and institutions as carriers and creators of heritage. The academic literature points to several gaps, most notably: (1) the lack of recognition of the pope as a personification of heritage within the context of apostolic succession; (2) the absence of studies combining theological and historical approaches with quantitative methods and digital tools in religion research; and (3) a failure to assess the modern papacy as an element of cultural heritage that responds dynamically to social and technological change. The research gap addressed by this article concerns the absence of a comprehensive approach to the papacy as a form of intangible cultural heritage, in which the pope plays a central role as a living component of a two-thousand-year tradition.

2. Materials and Methods

The aim of this article is to identify the key elements of the papacy as part of the Catholic Church’s cultural and religious heritage. To achieve this, the study relies almost exclusively on a qualitative literature review and analysis of selected papal documents—such as constitutions and encyclicals—that have significantly influenced the development of the papacy and the office of the pope. In addition, papal lexicons were consulted to clarify the historical context and continuity of apostolic succession spanning over 2000 years. In this way, the article adopts a historical–theological perspective, presenting the papacy as a form of living heritage embodied by successive pontiffs.

The scope of the study necessitated a purposive selection of literature due to the highly specialized nature of the subject. Academic sources were chosen for their relevance to the research objective: to explore and substantiate the thesis that the pope functions both as a bearer of intangible religious heritage and as an active creator of Catholic tradition. The analysis focuses on documents and scholarly works that interpret the papacy within theological, historical, and cultural heritage frameworks.

The literature for this study was selected using three complementary strategies. First, we employed purposive sampling by choosing papal works and documents (constitutions, encyclicals, bullae) that are pivotal to the historical–theological development of the papal office. Second, we identified key contributions within heritage studies, including both classical discussions of the heritage concept and references to the UNESCO Convention on Intangible Cultural Heritage. Searches were conducted in the Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases using the keywords “Pope”, “papacy”, “cultural heritage”, “intangible heritage”, and “living heritage.” Third, the review was supplemented with sociological and anthropological literature illustrating the mechanisms of collective memory and symbolic ethnicity. Inclusion criteria were: peer-reviewed publications, works published between 2000 and 2025 (with essential historical references), and texts in English, Italian, and Polish. This approach ensured that the literature selection combined historical–theological depth with the perspectives of contemporary heritage studies. The results of the search statistics for the phrase “Pope” in the Google browser were prepared based on Google Trends results normalized to a 0–100 scale. The results present the global reach of searches for the period from January 2004 to May 2025. It is worth noting, however, a significant limitation inherent to this data source. The search term is formulated in English, which restricts the scope of the queries. Nevertheless, both the normalized search-frequency results and their temporal patterns correspond closely to searches conducted in other languages; accordingly, this limitation is considered acceptable, and—given the widespread use of English—highly representative of the precise outcome. The data presented were retrieved on 23 May 2025.

Although the study does not incorporate empirical research methods, the use of interpretive textual analysis provides a solid foundation for investigating the papacy as a dynamic and symbolic institution. Before presenting the specific heritage elements of the papal office, the article outlines key issues that frame the figure of the pope and his pontificate in the context of cultural heritage theory.

3. Pontifical Cultural Heritage

Analysis of the integral elements of the papacy, as a domain of Christian cultural heritage, reveals the complexity of the roles and functions fulfilled by the pope. These encompass not only the spiritual sphere but also doctrinal, jurisdictional, and even representational dimensions. The papacy can be understood horizontally as a collection of pontificates realizing the continuity of apostolic succession, but also vertically through the entirety of traditions, rituals, objects, and institutions associated with the exercise of papal functions. By combining historical and theoretical perspectives, it should be acknowledged that despite changing sociocultural conditions, the papacy remains a dynamic center of the cultural heritage of Catholics and a vital part of the religious tradition of the Church.

3.1. Religious Cultural Heritage

The theoretical understanding of religious cultural heritage encompasses those elements of heritage—both tangible and intangible—that are intrinsically linked to faith, religious practices, ecclesiastical institutions, and spirituality. However, beyond this conventional binary classification, it is essential to recognize the contextual nature of religious heritage, which manifests across various dimensions. Therefore, the present subsection takes into account economic, territorial, and denominational dimensions, as well as intergenerational dynamics of religious meaning.

3.1.1. Tangible and Intangible Religious Heritage

Contemporary academic studies on religious cultural heritage often focus on the restoration of what is decaying or has been forgotten. Most frequently, they pertain to the tangible form of heritage. Numerous reports exist on the revitalization of abandoned churches or the documentation of religious heritage [13,14]. F. Di Liddo et al. [15] also refer to the idea of restoring desacralized religious heritage objects for public benefit. Others, such as O. Allal-Chérif [16], employ digital technologies (AR and VR) in relation to cathedral heritage, while B. Okyere-Manu et al. [17] explore the role of cultural heritage in the protection of the natural environment.

The tangible cultural heritage of the Catholic religion is also represented on the UNESCO World Heritage List [18]. This includes primarily historic churches and monasteries from around the world, as well as a few feasts, festivals, and processions. Notably, two entries are directly associated with the Vatican: Vatican City (a state-monument), which includes, among others, St. Peter’s Basilica with its monumental square, the Apostolic Palace, the Vatican Museums, and the Vatican Gardens [9]; and the Historic Centre of Rome, the Properties of the Holy See in that City Enjoying Extraterritorial Rights and San Paolo Fuori le Mura, which comprises three more major Roman basilicas (besides St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City) [18], i.e., the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran and its cloister, the Basilica of Saint Mary Major (Santa Maria Maggiore) and its adjoining buildings, the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls (San Paolo Fuori le Mura), and the Chapel of the Holy Savior in the Lateran (Sancta Sanctorum) with the legendary Scala Sancta. Although these monuments are located within the borders of Rome, they are owned by the Holy See under extraterritorial rights.

Both I. Poulios [19] and R. Harrison [20] argue that religious heritage is not limited to material objects but also encompasses ritual practices, narratives, and institutions that transmit meaning across generations. It thus pertains to symbolic or immaterial cultural phenomena grounded in religious practices, beliefs, and institutions. Meanwhile, there are no intangible heritage elements listed under the Vatican State on UNESCO’s registry [18], although—as mentioned earlier—some Catholic social events such as pilgrimages or street celebrations originating in other countries have been recognized as intangible cultural heritage.

Religious heritage, as a subset of cultural heritage, includes the artifacts, practices, and narratives that reflect the values, beliefs, and identity of a given faith community. It is a dynamic category, requiring continuous reinterpretation by society in order to remain vibrant [21]. The scholar emphasizes that its material and immaterial dimensions (e.g., rituals, sacred architecture) create a “living bridge” between past and present. B. Graham et al. [22] extend this concept by showing that religious heritage can be understood as a medium of transgenerational communication, contributing to the formation of collective memory. Religious heritage—as the ensemble of sites, objects, practices, rituals, and beliefs—is imbued with historical, cultural, and social significance [23]. UNESCO [24], in turn, highlights that religious heritage constitutes a vital element of humanity’s cultural heritage, requiring protection and sustainable management. C. Paine [25] argues that this heritage has a dual nature: for the faithful it is primarily sacred and actively used in worship, whereas for the broader public it serves as a cultural, historical, or artistic resource.

3.1.2. Contextual Dimensions

Apart from tangible and intangible heritage, the definitional perspective of this type of heritage is also noteworthy. T. Tsivolas [11] refers to the definition of religious cultural heritage in the context of the European continent through three fundamental perspectives—religious memory, religious aesthetics, and religious beliefs. This approach refers to cultural elements stemming from various religious traditions of the peoples of Europe and reveals that the European legal ethos imposes an obligation to duly care for the vast diversity of sacred cultural assets and religious cultural heritage in general.

Moreover, it seems that religious heritage carries greater significance in regions where the religion from which it derives is still practiced. In the context discussed here, the experience of countries where Catholicism interweaves with local tradition and culture is especially critical. In Italy, religious heritage plays a key role in shaping national and local identity, forming an integral part of the country’s cultural landscape, although, according to F. Garelli [26], this picture has changed in recent years. Among the reasons, he lists the tension between the Church’s public activity and the increasingly secularized religious identity of Italian Catholics, alongside religious individualism and the presence of alternative spiritualities. Nevertheless, Italian religious heritage encompasses not only monumental churches and sacred pilgrimage destinations, but also traditions, processions, and religious practices that are vividly present in the daily life of communities.

Finally, Italy—home to the Vatican and the center of the Catholic world—plays an exceptional role in shaping European and global religious heritage, with the papacy functioning as the core of religious heritage, intertwined with national and regional identity. J. Burckhardt [27] already emphasized in The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy that the Roman Church shaped Italian cultural consciousness through art, education, and law. Contemporary religion and its heritage not only influence Italian national identity but also shape their public and political spaces. In this context, churches, monasteries, and associated traditions serve simultaneously as places of worship, tourist magnets, works of art, and key elements of local and national memory, creating a complex network of interdependencies between the sacred sphere, the market, and cultural policy [28].

Academic literature also frequently emphasizes the economic and social benefits that accompany the presence of religious cultural heritage in a given area. One must also not forget the touristic significance of cultural heritage and its interpretation. W. Nuryanti [29] stresses that its meaning should be publicly disseminated to promote a deeper understanding in the contemporary context. Conversely, M.T. Falk and E. Hagsten [30] have examined both beneficial and harmful factors affecting world cultural heritage sites, particularly aspects linked to tourism and infrastructure. On the other hand, M. González-González and O. Fernández-Álvarez [31] underline that religious heritage offers considerable touristic potential, particularly in regions affected by crises. However, this requires that such activities be conducted in a sustainable manner and in line with ethical and social considerations. Otherwise, when scaled to mass tourism, they may pose a threat to the religious value of the destination. K. Pande and F. Shi [32] point out that the literature has long sought to balance the seemingly contradictory demands of sacred religious sites and tourist destinations. They conclude, however, that it is the religious and cultural dimensions that play a significant role in shaping the visitors’ experiences.

R. Martinez Cárdenas [33] discusses how intangible heritage connected to spirituality and religion becomes a tourist attraction. H. Li et al. [34] recognize it as a tool for enhancing social cohesion. Shared heritage connects people, reflects their distinctiveness and history in relation to other communities, and may also provide a foundation for prosocial and pro-economic actions. E.K. Gedecho and S. (Sam) Kim [35] study the spiritual well-being of participants in transnational religious festivals among the Ethiopian diaspora. They conclude that participation in religious practices offers numerous benefits for spiritual well-being, and that the experience of spirituality is conditioned by individuals’ roles and levels of engagement in the festivals. Q. Qui [36], based on an analysis of a Chinese city, observes that intangible cultural heritage enjoys popularity among both locals and foreigners. It provides what is known as a “cultural soul” by creating distinctive places and meanings within the urban landscape.

B. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett [37], meanwhile, draws attention to a significant conceptual shift regarding intangible heritage at the beginning of the 21st century. A UNESCO report [11] dated 16 May 2001, highlighted the necessity of a conceptual transformation from artifacts to people, their knowledge, and skills. It thus proposed extending the scope of intangible heritage to include individuals, their entire habitus, and social spaces. Furthermore, M. Bouchenak [10] notes that tangible cultural heritage is designed to survive long after its creator’s death, while intangible heritage is more closely tied to the person who transmits it. These conclusions suggest that a religious leader—such as the pope—can be considered one such transmitter.

The crucial role of religious leaders in preserving cultural heritage is also emphasized by scholars of non-Christian religions. N. Panjepour et al. [38] conclude that cultural heritage and its understanding serve as sources of identity and social responsibility. In the case of the Catholic Church, the Christian papal cultural heritage constitutes a unique element of the religious identity of the faithful.

There are also references to the timeless nature of cultural heritage and its significance for intergenerational relations. M. Amkisan [39] argues that symbolism in liturgical rites preserves theological continuity and adapts to sociocultural changes, making religious worship timeless and contextually relevant. The findings of A. Gemar [40] indicate that the predictive mechanisms of intergenerational transmission of beliefs depend on the form of parental and adult religious involvement, as well as on which parent is engaged in or associated with that involvement. Similarly, A. Chamratrithirong et al. [41], using the example of Buddhism, demonstrate that intergenerational transmission and the direct and indirect connections between parents’ and adolescents’ beliefs and practices significantly influence the moral attitudes of the latter.

3.2. Outline of the History of the Papacy

The papacy, as an institution of the Catholic Church, traces its roots back to the first century A.D., when Simon, an apostle of Jesus Christ, receives a new name from the Son of God. Christ designates him as the Rock (that is, Peter) and entrusts him with leadership over the Church, saying:

“And I tell you, you are Peter [gr. Petros], and on this rock [gr. petra] I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven”.

(Matthew 16:18–19) [3]

Peter’s primacy ends with martyrdom, but the mission continues through the succession of subsequent popes. This, however, is not a universally accepted view within Christianity—only within Catholicism. D.C. Youvan [42] explains that the Roman Catholic Church sustains the unique role and authority of the first pope by transmitting it to his successors, granting them primacy over the entire Church of Christ. This approach contrasts with that of the Orthodox Church, which acknowledges Peter’s significance but rejects the notion of papal supremacy. The same applies to Protestant churches, which do not accept apostolic succession in the Roman Catholic sense. In Catholic doctrine, however, apostolic succession means that the pope possesses supreme and universal jurisdictional authority over the Church and, since the 19th century, is considered infallible in matters of faith.

Undoubtedly, the figure of Peter as the first pope is closely tied to the development of the ideas of apostolic succession and papal primacy. Yet, as D.C. Youvan [42] notes—based on Church Fathers’ writings and historical events such as the First Council of Nicaea, the pontificates of Leo the Great and Gregory the Great, and the Great Schism of 1054—the concept of papal supremacy in the form of jurisdictional authority lacks unequivocal support in biblical texts and the structure of the early Church. G.E. Demacopoulos [43], however, explains that only in late antiquity—especially during the pontificate of Pope Leo I (440–461) [44]—did the Roman office acquire actual judicial and disciplinary prerogatives, due to conflicts with the Patriarchs of Constantinople and involvement in imperial matters. These developments solidified papal authority, rooted in Christ’s words entrusting Peter with a special leadership role.

A. Fortescue [45], analyzing the writings of the Church Fathers up to 451 A.D., asserts that the papacy appears to be one of the clearest and easiest dogmas of the Church to substantiate. Referring to the previously quoted passage on Peter’s primacy (Mt 16:18–19) [3], Fortescue confirms—crucial for this study—that the only standard for judgments on correct Christian doctrine and faith is the living authority of the pope.

The period from the 4th to the 6th century marked the formation of the modern structures of Christianity, replacing earlier diversity and inconsistency. This also included shaping liturgical forms, church architecture, the structure of the Eucharist, the liturgical year, and sacramental rites related to ordination, marriage, anointing of the sick, penance, and burial of the dead [46]. It was in the 4th century, following the Edict of Milan in 313 A.D., that the pope began to play a more significant role. During this time, popes like Leo I the Great reinforced the authority of the Bishop of Rome in both spiritual and political matters [44,47].

In the Middle Ages, the papacy gained importance, especially under Pope Gregory VII, who implemented reforms aimed at liberating the Church from secular rulers, leading to conflicts such as the Investiture Controversy with Emperor Henry IV. Gregory VII, through the Dictatus Papae [48], proclaimed a series of theses emphasizing the supremacy of the pope over secular authority, including the right to appoint and depose bishops and to depose rulers. These Gregorian reforms transformed the papacy into the Church’s central authority, limiting the autonomy of local bishops and strengthening the hierarchical structure. The pope became the supreme authority not only in spiritual but also in political matters [49].

The Renaissance period, on the other hand, brought changes to the functioning of the papacy. Popes Julius II and Leo X became notable patrons of the arts, supporting artists such as Michelangelo and Raphael, whose works remain accessible today [50]. However, excessive expenditures and the sale of indulgences led to criticism of the Church and the beginning of the Reformation. D. MacCulloch [50] presents the Reformation as a complex process that not only resulted in the emergence of Protestantism but also deeply affected Europe’s social, political, and cultural structures.

In response to the Reformation, Pope Paul III initiated the Counter-Reformation, with the Council of Trent (1545–1563) at its center. This council introduced reforms aimed at improving ecclesiastical discipline while preserving doctrine. F. Barbierato [51] states that the council’s decrees not only defined the theological, ecclesiological, and institutional framework of the Church but also reshaped Catholic practice in daily life. He notes, however, that although the Council of Trent strengthened Catholic confessional identity, it simultaneously made reconciliation with Protestants impossible.

The modern era of the papacy is equally noteworthy—not only due to turbulent events such as the loss of the Papal States in the 19th century but also because of the announcement of numerous reforms. The Papal States were gradually annexed by the unified Kingdom of Italy between 1859 and 1860, culminating in the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy (without Rome) in 1861. In 1870, Italian troops entered Rome, and Pope Pius IX declared himself a “prisoner of the Vatican.” Papal sovereignty over Vatican City was not recognized until the Lateran Treaties of 1929.

The Vatican Councils were also key milestones for the Church. During the First Vatican Council in 1870 [52], the dogma of papal infallibility was proclaimed. The Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) introduced liturgical reform. Particularly important was the 1963 Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Sacrosanctum Concilium [53], which addressed numerous issues by encouraging the faithful to actively participate in the Eucharist and reforming the rites of sacraments celebrated by priests. J. Cavadini et al. [54] identify four central themes of the council: the introduction of vernacular languages into the liturgy, the broadening and diversification of biblical readings, a deepening of moral teaching in homilies, and catechesis grounded in the mysteries of faith and the nature of the sacraments—along with the repositioning of the priest toward the congregation during the Eucharist. Thus, 20th-century popes such as John XXIII and Cardinal Karol Wojtyła (later Pope John Paul II) took steps during the council to modernize the Church and promote interfaith dialogue. In the 21st century, Pope Francis has focused the Church’s attention on synodality, emphasizing the communal nature of the Church through the participation of laity, clergy, bishops, and the pope in the Church’s mission and in the collegial discernment of God’s will—thereby fulfilling Vatican II’s call for greater lay involvement in the life of the Church [55,56].

3.3. Functions and Duties of the Pope

The functions of the papacy—the duties and prerogatives of the Bishop of Rome—are defined in conciliar and papal documents that form the theological and legal foundation of the papacy. A key document is the constitution Pastor aeternus [57], issued during the First Vatican Council, which declared the dogma of papal infallibility in matters of faith and morals and confirmed his supreme jurisdictional authority over the entire Church. The Second Vatican Council, developing this teaching in the constitution Lumen gentium [3], presented the pope as the head of the college of bishops, emphasizing his full and supreme authority in unity with the episcopate. The 1983 Code of Canon Law [5] (canons 331–335) clarifies that the pope exercises this power ordinarily, directly, and independently as the Church’s supreme legislator and judge. Complementing these provisions is the constitution Universi Dominici Gregis [58], which outlines the procedures for electing a pope and the moment he assumes full pastoral authority. Thus, the papacy, rooted in the primacy of the apostle Peter, retains its central role in the structure of the Church, combining elements of authority, tradition, and collegiality in the service of unity among the faithful. The detailed functions and associated tasks of the papacy are illustrated in

Table 1. Papal functions and their resulting tasks.

Functions	Resulting Task
Spiritual functions	– Fulfilling the tasks of the vicar of Christ, i.e., leading the community of the faithful in prayer, faith and morality – Proclaiming the kerygma, celebrating the liturgy, going on pilgrimages – Taking care of the unity of the Church and mutual love
Doctrinal functions	– Authority in the teaching of faith and morals – Presides over the Magisterium of the Church – Papal infallibility in doctrinal matters (ex cathedra)
Jurisdictional functions	– Head of the Vatican City State, administrator of the Roman Curia – Supreme executive, legislative and judicial authority – Nomination of bishops and creation of cardinals – Has ordinary, supreme, full, immediate and universal power
Representative functions	– Religious and Moral Ambassador – Voice of Conscience on Peace and Social Justice
Other papal functions	– Ecumenical meetings – Beatification and canonization processes – Missionary activity and giving alms – Liturgical and structural reform of the curia

Source: own study based on: [5,59,60,61,62].

.

Naturally, these functions have changed, diminished, and evolved over the centuries. One telling example is the period 882–962, which historians refer to as the “dark century” of dependence on Roman aristocracy, during which eight popes were murdered.

W. Ullmann [63] presents the origins and early development of the papacy, paying particular attention to its relationship with secular institutions. He discusses the beginnings of canon law and the first forms of papal administration. His narrative combines the analysis of written sources with descriptions of political realities. He concludes that in the Middle Ages, the papacy created a unique form of power based on the concept of spiritual authority (auctoritas), which was superior to secular power (potestas). This evolved into a theocracy in which the pope became the supreme authority not only within the Church but also over secular monarchs.

R. Fletcher [64], in analyzing the Christianization processes of the 6th–11th centuries, frequently references the role of popes, though they are not the central figures of his narrative. Nevertheless, their function was essential in the broader context of the institutionalization of Christianity and coordination of missionary activities, particularly in Western and Central Europe. U.-R. Blumenthal [65] presents yet another role that popes had to assume by discussing the development of the Investiture Controversy amid changing models of ecclesiastical and secular authority. He cites scholarly studies on one of the most significant conflicts between Church and state in medieval Western Europe—concerning the right to appoint bishops and abbots—which necessitated Gregorian reforms, ultimately concluded with the Concordat of Worms in 1122.

In subsequent centuries, the papacy again experienced periods of diminished independence, such as when—due to political instability and the influence of the French king—seven popes governed the Church from Avignon (1309–1377). Though Pope Gregory XI eventually returned to Rome, this led to consequences including the Western Schism and the emergence of various antipopes. It is worth noting, however, that the view that these popes lacked independence is contested by some scholars. J. Rollo-Koster [66], for example, describes this as a dynamic period in Church history, marked by administrative and cultural innovations as well as effective centralized management.

Attempts to subjugate the papacy to secular powers occurred repeatedly even at the end of the second millennium. K.S. Latourette [67] discusses processes of secularization and revolutionary assaults on the Church in the 18th and 19th centuries, with particular emphasis on France and the German states. These included tensions between Church teachings and the rationalist worldview of the Enlightenment, as well as persecution of clergy and the de-Christianization of public life during the French Revolution.

One may observe that the difficulties and challenges faced throughout papal history often became opportunities to endow the Church with new dimensions. Popes who faced crises or were elected to resolve them took on new roles. Even today, one can see the Church’s gradual yet consistent response to ongoing changes in the modern world, particularly at the turn of the second and third millennia. These include developments in communication (radio, television, social media), modern technologies (computing, digital systems), and artificial intelligence, as well as emerging social and moral issues accompanying civilizational progress.

3.4. Death and Election of the Pope

The death of a pope and the election of his successor are cyclical events that mark subsequent stages of apostolic succession, interrupted by a brief period known as sede vacante (Latin for “the seat being vacant”), during which the papal office remains unoccupied. During this time, the pope’s funeral takes place (usually on the 4th to 6th day after death), followed by the conclave (convened 15–20 days after the pope’s death). Although the procedures surrounding these events have evolved significantly over the centuries, such changes have generally been limited to organizational aspects. Most often, they were introduced in response to the Church’s current needs, though in some cases, they have become embedded within ecclesiastical tradition. A prime example is the practice of electing the pope during a conclave (cum clave, Latin for “with a key”).

In the first millennium, the papal election process was not strictly defined—at times the choice was made by the Roman clergy, in other instances by the Roman people, or even the emperor. It was not until the 11th century that the College of Cardinals assumed this responsibility, and only from the 13th century did the process follow established principles. Papal lexicons (e.g., [68]) note the first instance of a conclave held through the forced confinement of cardinals in a single chamber, in the southeastern part of Rome’s Palatine Hill, in 1241. A few weeks later, Celestine IV was elected. However, at that time, this was an exception rather than the rule.

It is important not to conflate the duration of a conclave with the period of sede vacante, as in some instances, for various reasons, the conclave was interrupted for up to two years (as in 1314), or it was not convened until many years after the pope’s death. For example, after the death of Celestine IV, the papal throne remained vacant for two years, and following the death of Pope Clement IV in 1268, it remained vacant for nearly three years. This was sometimes due to a lack of consensus and failure to achieve a two-thirds majority. After nearly three years of fruitless discussions and burdening the local population with the obligation to provide for the electors, a breakthrough came in 1271: the election of a non-cardinal archdeacon, who took the name Gregory X. According to some sources, this occurred only after the cardinals were locked in a room, had their food rations reduced, and even had the roof removed to expose them to the elements. To prevent such deadlocks from recurring, Gregory X issued the Apostolic Constitution Ubi Periculum [69], which codified the successful practices of isolating the cardinals from the outside world and limiting their provisions. Later, Gregory XV issued Aeterni Patris Filius [70] in 1621, comprehensively formalizing the rules for papal elections. A year later, in Decet Romanum Pontificem, he added provisions concerning the duties of participants and penalties for violating conclave rules.

Gregory XV’s constitution allowed for three voting methods: unanimous acclamation without a formal vote (per inspirationem), delegation of electoral power (per compromissum), and standard voting requiring a two-thirds majority (per scrutinium). These votes were to be secret and anonymous, which necessitated the burning of the ballots. This act of burning ballots, introduced at the time, has become one of the most symbolically potent elements of papal tradition, and remains the only official form of communicating the conclave’s outcome. It was only in the 20th century, during the election of Leo XIII, that attempts were made to differentiate the color of the smoke rising from the Sistine Chapel chimney. In the 21st century, the ringing of bells at St. Peter’s Basilica was added to confirm the election. Burning ballots and the resulting white smoke have become culturally recognizable symbols of the papal election. In the study of intangible heritage, these practices are classified as repetitive rituals with a high degree of symbolic value [11,37], contributing to the institutional identity of the papacy. Similarly symbolic are the traditional words announcing the new pope, repeated for over seven centuries: “Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum: Habemus Papam!” (“I announce to you a great joy: We have a Pope!”).

The modern procedure for electing a pope is governed by several legal instruments. The first of these is the Apostolic Constitution Universi Dominici Gregis [58], issued by Pope John Paul II in 1996. It outlines in detail the procedures for convening the conclave, voting, age requirements for electors, and the protocol to be followed if the conclave cannot reach a decision. While John Paul II’s constitution prohibited any method of election other than by a two-thirds majority, Benedict XVI’s apostolic constitution De aliquibus mutationibus [71] allowed for election by a simple majority—but only after 33 failed ballots. At that point, the election is restricted to the two leading candidates, and the vote is held without their participation. This was not so much an innovation as a restoration of the via compromissoria mechanism—an exit from deadlock—already envisioned by Gregory XV.

The formal requirements regarding the conclave and papal candidates, as defined in the aforementioned apostolic constitutions, have indirectly shaped the practical process of electing an apostolic successor. While they establish a strict legal framework, they also allow for the development of flexible practices that narrow the choice of pope within the bounds of canon law. These include matters of gender, clerical status, denomination, and age. These issues will be further elaborated upon later in the work, both from the perspective of papal heritage and the results of scholarly research.

Although the Church’s current practice of electing baptized male cardinals under the age of 80 has been followed since 1970, it does not arise directly from legal prohibitions. The formal requirement to assume the papal office—and thus the office of the Bishop of Rome—is a valid election by the conclave, acceptance of the office by the candidate, and episcopal ordination (if the candidate is not already a bishop) ([5] can. 332 §1). A layman elected pope would therefore first need to be ordained a bishop. But only a priest can be made a bishop, and only a baptized man can be ordained a priest ([5] can. 1024). Hence, only a baptized male is eligible for the papacy. Paradoxically, he does not need to have been baptized in the Catholic Church; he could be a convert from another Christian denomination that recognizes Catholic baptism [72].

There is also an indirect age-related requirement for the papacy—though it pertains to the electors, not the candidate. Pope Paul VI introduced a rule in his 1970 apostolic constitution Ingravescentem Aetatem [61], stating that cardinals lose the right to participate in a conclave once they reach the age of 80. This was reaffirmed by Universi Dominici Gregis [58]. While that constitution (Chapter V, § 88) stipulates that any baptized Catholic male can be elected pope, in practice, since the 14th century, no one has been elected from outside the College of Cardinal-Electors. Furthermore, Pope Paul VI argued [61] that advanced age could impair the ability to make difficult decisions and actively participate in such a significant ecclesial event. Therefore, established practice and the rationale behind the rule make it highly unlikely that a non-cardinal or a cardinal over 80 would be elected pope—even though canon law does not explicitly forbid it.

Other elements of the papal cultural heritage include the traditions, rituals, and customs practiced by or in relation to popes, based on ceremonial norms developed over previous centuries. Today, these are culturally significant aspects of the papacy that strongly resonate with contemporary Catholics—especially given that modern media allow them to witness virtually every papal event. Some of these customs—such as the aforementioned white smoke or the practice of kissing the Fisherman’s Ring (Anulus Piscatoris) as a sign of respect, loyalty, and obedience—have survived to the present day [73]. Others have been discontinued or modified by successive popes. An example is the medieval papal funeral ritual in which the Camerlengo confirmed the pope’s death by calling his name three times [74,75]—a practice no longer included in the current funeral rites of the Roman Pontiff, as outlined in documents from 1969, 2000, and 2024 [76]. Papal vestments (mitre, pallium, zucchetto, stole, and tiara) also form part of this heritage, serving as visual symbols of the office.

In the second millennium, key events inaugurating a pontificate included papal coronations and enthronements, with the tiara ceremony being the central symbol of papal authority. However, in 1964, Paul VI laid down the tiara on the altar as a gesture of renouncing temporal power, and since then, the inauguration Mass involves only the conferral of a new papal name, the pallium, and the papal ring—highlighting the spiritual and sacred dimension of papal authority. In 2025, however, Pope Leo XIV reinstated the tradition of receiving homage from the people of Rome, represented by the mayor of the city.

One of the essential aspects of any pontificate is the papal name adopted by the newly elected pope on the day of his election. History shows that this has not always been a new name—especially in earlier centuries, some popes retained their baptismal names. The papal name has symbolic value, often referencing the mission or values of a predecessor (not necessarily a pope). It also carries spiritual significance, as by adopting a new name, the pope symbolically renounces his former life and accepts a new divine calling. Certain names have become more common than others, generally reflecting the overall direction of a pontificate.

Other important components of cultural heritage include the historical structures of the Vatican City State, established by the Lateran Treaties of 1929. At its head stands the pope, followed by the Governorate of Vatican City State, which oversees the Gendarmerie Corps and the Swiss Guard. Then comes the Roman Curia, which includes Dicasteries, the Secretariat of State, Tribunals, and auxiliary institutions [62]. Additional key bodies include the College of Cardinals, the Synod of Bishops, and auxiliary organizations. One often-discussed body is the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith, responsible for theological doctrine, heresies, and related matters. In 1965, it was still known as the Roman Inquisition, previously called the Holy Office or the Holy Inquisition [77].

The historical character of this heritage is also exemplified by the Swiss Guard—the pope’s military corps since 1506—which retains traditional Renaissance uniforms. During papal ceremonies, it plays both ceremonial and security roles. One particularly spectacular event is the annual oath of allegiance on May 6, commemorating the defense of Rome in 1527, held in the Courtyard of St. Damasus in the Vatican [78].

4. Discussion

Based on this, referring to the perspectives of religious cultural heritage proposed by T. Tsivolas [11], papal heritage can be considered in the context of religious memory, relating it to the collective memory of the Catholic community regarding the history of the papacy, associated rituals, places of worship (Vatican, Rome, Avignon, the Holy Land, etc.), figures of saintly popes, and related events. This memory is linked to the intergenerational transmission of Catholic identity through the history of the papacy, papal chronicles and procedures, televised broadcasts, and pilgrimages to papal-related sites. The history of the papacy also resides within the religious memory of Catholics, and the continuity of succession to the papal throne allows it to be revitalized and expanded with each pontificate.

The religious aesthetic perspective may relate to the aesthetic aspects of religious objects and practices associated with the papacy, including the architecture of Roman basilicas, liturgical artworks (e.g., the Sistine Chapel). Expressive elements of this heritage include customs and rituals such as the conclave procedure, the smoke over the Sistine Chapel, the words “Habemus Papam!”, or traditional blessings.

The religious beliefs perspective directly concerns Catholic doctrine and belief in the Christian God, who entrusted the Apostle Peter with the care of the Church in the person of the Son of God, thereby giving the heritage a spiritual dimension. It is essential to mention what fills the content of papal pontificates: encyclicals, teachings, apostolic constitutions, and doctrines.

Thus, it is worth considering whether the pope himself—as a religious leader by virtue of succession to the Petrine throne, ruler of the Vatican City State, and a contemporary living person fulfilling the papal office and mission—can serve as an element of cultural heritage. Based on some literary reports, it appears that indeed the pope can be a significant exemplification of this variant of cultural heritage as a bearer, initiator, or symbol of traditions essential for the identity of the Catholic community.

Individuals identifying as religious more frequently engage in cultural events related to local traditions and history, emphasizing their role as carriers of cultural heritage [79]. This also applies to symbolic religiosity, expressed through identification with a religion despite symbolic adherence. This relates to H. Gans’ concept of symbolic ethnic (including religious) belonging [80], in which individuals, despite lacking regular religious practice, identify with a religion through symbols and traditions. Such individuals, by participating in religious rituals and celebrations, contribute to maintaining and transmitting cultural heritage. This is evident, for example, in some Catholics attending services only on major holidays, although the Catechism of the Catholic Church ([81] §2180) and the Decalogue require attendance at Mass every Sunday [82]. Histories of many pontificates confirm these observations, as throughout papal history, some popes lived lifestyles inconsistent with Church teaching yet remained defenders of Christian culture. An example is Julius II, called the warrior pope, who commissioned Michelangelo’s paintings in the Sistine Chapel and the construction of St. Peter’s Basilica, despite his political and military activities facing opposition from the clergy [83].

K.S. Chng and S. Narayanan [84] demonstrate that awareness of cultural heritage, by incorporating cultural and historical information into narratives, can encourage recipients toward more prosocial behaviors. They prove this by showing higher willingness to contribute to the maintenance of cultural heritage sites by individuals aware of their cultural significance. It can be assumed that beyond spiritual motives, awareness of papal heritage among Catholics is a crucial element in maintaining and continuing this tradition. The pope, as the highest of priests, is simultaneously the primary initiator and narrator of papal heritage, as well as a living symbol of the Catholic Church’s heritage (living heritage).

The literature confirms that a single person, such as the pope, can serve as a component of cultural heritage if they become a bearer, initiator, or symbol of traditions recognized as vital to the identity of a community. The pope, as a person holding the papal office and successor of the apostles, appears to be an exceptional example embodying cultural heritage. According to the UNESCO 2003 Convention on the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, this heritage includes “practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, and skills—along with the instruments, objects, artifacts, and cultural spaces that characterize them” [8]. As the highest dispenser of holy mysteries, executor and chief celebrant of the most important rituals and procedures—inaugurations, encyclicals, blessings “Urbi et Orbi”, conclaves—the pope institutionalizes and transmits blessings and traditions to the faithful and his successors.

In cultural anthropology, it is acknowledged that an individual whose image or person becomes a contemporary icon of tradition can function as a reference point for collective memory and identity [85]. By assuming the office of the successor of St. Peter, the pope symbolizes apostolic continuity and the cohesion of the Catholic community—this in itself constitutes religious cultural heritage, which V. Turner et al. [86] describe as a key to understanding social structures and processes. Sociologically, this is explained as a process of reification, i.e., transforming a person into a lasting sign of a belief system that transcends their individual life [87].

Finally, the pope is also a creator of new layers of tradition. Each pontificate introduces new rituals and practices (e.g., synodality), which may later be adopted by communities worldwide and incorporated into the history of heritage. This process is studied by cognitive sociology of religion, which notes that spiritual leaders can create innovative symbolic forms that act as agents of cultural evolution. H. Whitehouse [88] distinguishes two modes of religiosity: imagistic and doctrinal. The imagistic mode is characterized by rare, intense rituals that create strong group bonds, while the doctrinal mode is based on frequent, routine practices that facilitate wide dissemination of beliefs. Spiritual leaders like the pope can influence transitions between these modes through changes introduced in rituals or procedures. This, in turn, shapes the development and transformation of religious traditions. An example is the change after Vatican II of the priest facing the congregation, the language of liturgy, and changes in the conclave.

In summary, it can be stated that the pope, as an individual, can be considered an element of religious cultural heritage not due to his personal biography, nor solely because of his leadership of the community of believers, but as a bearer, symbol, and initiator of narratives and practices that the Catholic community recognizes as key to its identity and continuity of tradition. The elements that define papal heritage include: the history and significance of the papacy, the intangible aspects of religious ritual, the material and technical aspects of the history of the papacy, as well as the pope’s cultural and religious functions. These elements can be framed within religious cultural heritage due to their mutually overlapping attributes. Among these are:

• elements of the sacred (temples, liturgical periods, prayers and hymns, clergy) serving as carriers of sacred values,
• the liturgical function of both material and immaterial cultural elements used in religious practices and rituals [39],
• cultural identity shaped by the communal narrative concerning the origin, purpose, mission, and values of Catholicism [89,90],
• multi-dimensional and intergenerational transmission, which, due to the liturgical functions performed and the sacred conveyed, encompasses both intergenerational continuity [40,41] of heritage across time and space, as well as the spiritual realm transcending time and space,
• the protection and management of heritage [32].

Religious cultural heritage, while part of the broader concept of cultural heritage, is distinguished by a unique interweaving of the sacred, liturgical function, and role in communal identity, which calls for an interdisciplinary approach by researchers and conservation practitioners (see Figure 2).

5. Conclusions

The research presented in this paper demonstrates an interdisciplinary approach to interpreting the papacy as a dynamic form of cultural heritage. This was achieved through combining historical—theological analyses. The primary objective of the study was to identify key elements of papal heritage and role of popes as both personal and institutional custodians of the Catholic Church’s heritage.

5.1. Achieving the Cognitive Goal

A literature review highlighted a significant gap in the academic discourse regarding the papacy as a living heritage. Whereas traditional studies focused primarily on the material aspects of religious heritage (e.g., basilicas, artifacts), and later included intangible religious elements, the papacy was rarely considered a distinct component of intangible cultural heritage. The review introduces a new interpretive category: the pope as a living component and symbol of Catholic heritage, thus broadening the understanding of religious heritage beyond the static notion of sacred objects, by incorporating the personal dimensions of leadership and spiritual continuity.

Figure 3 schematizes the three interlocking dimensions that sustain the Pope as a “living heritage.” At its core lies Living Heritage—the person and functions of the pontiff acting as narrator, initiation ritual and symbol of continuity—while three supporting domains feed into and are in turn reshaped by this central role. The Tangible layer (bottom right) comprises the material substratum: basilicas, archives, papal documents and works of art that materialize papal authority. The Intangible layer (bottom left) covers ritual forms and symbolic practices—from Urbi et Orbi blessings and conclave ceremonies to living customs and liturgical functions—through which the Pope enacts and perpetuates tradition. The Contextual layer (top) denotes the historical legal framework (canon law, Vatican institutions, conciliar decrees) that both empowers and delimits papal agency. Together, these three dimensions illustrate how the Pope continuously mobilizes material and immaterial resources within a defined institutional setting to generate fresh acts of collective memory and identity.

The discussion exposed the multifaceted role of the pope—not only as a religious leader but also as a guardian of legal, historical, and moral authority. The article aimed to effectively situate the papacy within the broader discourse of papal roles and functions, thereby opening new research avenues concerning the involvement of religious leaders in preserving and developing cultural identity.

5.2. Future Research Directions

The issues addressed in this article, together with the suggestions provided by peer reviewers, have also enabled the identification of future research directions concerning the cultural heritage of the papacy. One such direction involves the analysis of how papal cultural heritage is perceived by both Catholics and non-Catholics. This would allow for the verification of hypotheses regarding potentially negligible differences in the degree of identification with this heritage across these groups. It is worth noting that this assumption finds partial support in F. Garelli’s [26] observation of Italian society, which, despite secularization and the adoption of attitudes contrary to Church teachings, continues to express strong attachment to Catholicism and the papacy. Although the cultural heritage of Italy and the papacy is intertwined through a shared history and culture, verifying such attitudes in other societies could further confirm the strong sense of attachment to papal heritage even among non-practicing Catholics or non-Catholics.

Equally important is the need to employ quantitative analyses encompassing all completed pontificates in order to assess the long-term cultural and institutional resilience of the papacy. Pursuing these research directions could provide a basis for advancing efforts to recognize papal rituals—such as those associated with the sede vacante period (beginning with the death of a pope, through the conclave, to the inauguration of a pontificate and the Urbi et Orbi blessing)—as part of UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity.