Al-Madafah in Sweida, Southern Syria: An Exploration of Architectural Heritage and Socio-Cultural Significance

Abstract

Al-Madafah (the guesthouse) is a cornerstone of the cultural and social fabric of Sweida Province in southern Syria. Rooted in the Druze community’s history following their settlement in Jabal al-Arab in the 17th century, these structures have served as spaces for hospitality, cultural exchange, political resistance, and community cohesion. Despite their significance, scholarly research on Madafahs in Sweida remains limited. This article examines their architectural design, socio-cultural roles, and historical evolution to uncover this understudied tradition and advance conservation efforts for this heritage. Combining archival research, case studies, and oral histories from residents and experts, this study employs narrative analysis to decode the cultural meanings embedded in these spaces. Findings reveal that Madafahs are more than architectural landmarks; they serve as living embodiments of resilience, cultural pride, and communal identity, fostering social cohesion, while their basalt stone construction reflects Jabal al-Arab’s vernacular heritage. Historically, they hosted revolutionary activities against colonial rule. Today, urbanisation and economic pressures threaten their traditional role, yet they endure as symbols of continuity. This study highlights Madafahs as valuable heritage sites and cradles for narratives of magnanimity and defiance. Collaborative efforts between stakeholders and policymakers could revitalise these spaces, ensuring that their legacy persists amid modern challenges.

1. Introduction

Vernacular architecture serves as a physical manifestation of cultural values and a living archive of communal practices [1]. In the Druze community of southern Syria, Al-Madafah (the guesthouse) has historically functioned as a multifaceted institution, providing shelter for travellers, facilitating conflict resolution, and serving as a platform for political mobilisation. These distinctive basalt stone structures, dating from the 17th to the 19th centuries, embody the region’s traditions of hospitality and community cohesion [2]. Despite their cultural and architectural significance, scholarly research on Madafahs in Sweida Province remains critically limited, with only one published study and brief mentions in historical accounts of Jabal al-Arab and the Syrian Great Revolt [3]. Despite increased scholarship on Druze communities over the past two decades, research and publications have primarily focused on the history and politics of the Druze, while philosophical, theological, and cultural studies remain severely underdeveloped [4]. The Syrian Druze community appears to be the least studied group among Druze populations, with over 63% of publications since 1990 concentrating on Israeli Druze, leaving Syrian and Lebanese communities significantly understudied [4]. This study addresses these critical gaps by examining Al-Madafah as a vernacular social institution in Sweida, Syria, contributing to the urgent need for research on material culture, daily social practices, and community-driven scholarship from Syrian Druze perspectives [4]. Comparable hospitality institutions across the Arab region have received more sustained scholarly attention. Studies from Jordan document how Madafahs transitioned from private guesthouses owned by tribal leaders to collective tribal forums (Diwan), reflecting broader transformations in social, economic, and political structures [5,6]. Research on Kuwait’s Diwaniyah reveals generational shifts in spatial preferences, with younger community members favouring smaller, informal settings over traditional, large-scale structures [7]. Scholars have debated whether modernisation erodes or transforms such traditions; Chay argues that the Diwaniyah’s adaptability challenges simplistic narratives of cultural erosion, demonstrating instead how the institution evolves while preserving its core social functions [8]. In the Syrian context, Ababsa examines how Raqqa’s Madafahs transformed from a tribal institution into an urban symbol of notability, appropriated by new social groups and reinterpreted through religious practices [9]. These studies collectively document the historical functions and contemporary adaptations of hospitality spaces across diverse Arab contexts; however, none address the unique case of Sweida’s Madafahs, their vernacular construction techniques, their role in preserving Druze collective memory, or their function as sites of anti-colonial resistance [2]. This article addresses these critical gaps by systematically investigating the architectural form, socio-cultural roles, and historical evolution of Madafahs in Sweida from the 17th century to the present. Through archival research, architectural documentation of selected case-studies across Sweida Province, and in-depth interviews with owners, community elders, and heritage experts, this study provides the first comprehensive documentation of these understudied structures. The analysis reveals that Madafahs function as living archives, bridging tangible architectural heritage with intangible cultural memory. Findings demonstrate that these spaces remain vital centres of social cohesion, despite contemporary economic pressures, and embody vernacular building traditions through their basalt stone construction, while also preserving narratives of resistance against colonial occupation. This research contributes to heritage conservation scholarship by positioning vernacular spaces not merely as architectural artefacts but as active repositories of cultural identity and collective historical memory.

1.1. Background

Jabal al-Arab, as its inhabitants chose to call it, rejecting the name Jabal al-Druze, due to the Druze majority that inhabits it, which is the name chosen by the coloniser as a tool for the sectarian division of Syria into states after its occupation [10], or Jabal Hawran, as it was previously known, and the Sweida province, recently, and to this day, its inhabitants are known as Ahl al-Jabal (people of the mountain), i.e., its residents [11]. The Sweida province is located in southern Syria (Figure 1), and this basalt region is renowned for its significance due to its wealth of architectural monuments that have attracted travellers and researchers, most of which date back to the Roman and Byzantine eras [12]. Archaeological studies have proven that the region has been inhabited throughout historical periods since 2300 BC [13]. Still, the current inhabitants have flocked to the mountain since the seventeenth century, and their influx continued until the early twentieth century [14].

The mountainous geography offered natural protection and strategic advantages for the new settlers. The villages where the migrants settled were already hundreds of years old [3]. The settlers rehabilitated habitable ruins and salvaged stone from deteriorated structures to build new homes. They adopted the region’s indigenous construction system, employing basalt stone for foundations, walls, and ceilings throughout their structures [15]. Narrow streets, high walls, and compact houses were the main features of these villages [16]. The long-standing traditions of village restoration equipped the Druze builders with the skills to develop new techniques [12]. Later, they used reeds and wooden beams for ceilings before the introduction of cement as a building material in the twentieth century. Before the migration of the Druze, local Bedouin and some Hawran peasants habituated a few villages only seasonally [17]. The Druze settlements flourished in Jabal al-Arab due to its defensible terrain and abundant resources [18]. Over time, they have built a unique community where hospitality remains a fundamental aspect of their cultural values [18].

1.2. Hospitality ‘Al-Diyafah’

Diyāfah (Hospitality) plays a significant role in community development and social solidarity, as demonstrated through various historical traditions in Islamic society [19]. Different types of hospitality, such as hosting strangers, visitors, delegations, and the public, strengthen social bonds and foster cooperation among community members [19]. Hospitality among the Druze includes receiving, sheltering, feeding, and protecting guests. It is an authentic tradition that expresses their generosity [20]. This tradition has principles and rules, including not asking the guest about the reason for their visit until three days have passed since their arrival, so that the question is not interpreted as hastening the guest’s departure. The guest has various rights, including the right to seek refuge from injustice and to aid in repelling it. If he flees from an enemy, he is offered protection. If he is a bankrupt debtor, he is offered money. He is given what he asks for if he seeks advice and counsel [2]. If hospitality is of this importance, it has grown and developed within Madafahs, the hospitality establishments that played an essential role in Druze social solidarity.

2. Materials and Methods

The study employs qualitative methods, primarily utilising ethnographic techniques to explore Madafahs in Sweida province, southern Syria. Contemporary heritage conservation emphasises multidisciplinary approaches that integrate architectural, material, and community studies [21]. The ethnographic methodology employed in this study is particularly suited to investigating Madafahs for several reasons. First, the absence of prior systematic documentation of these structures necessitates an exploratory, immersive approach that can capture both tangible architectural elements and intangible cultural practices. Second, the living heritage nature of Madafahs, which continue to function as active social spaces, requires participant observation and oral histories to understand their contemporary sociocultural roles alongside their historical significance. Third, integrating architectural documentation with narrative analysis enables this study to bridge the gap between material heritage preservation and cultural memory studies, positioning vernacular spaces not merely as architectural artefacts but as active repositories of collective identity. Fieldwork took place between July and December 2023. The research was conducted in two main stages. The initial stage involved field visits to multiple Madafahs in the region, 23 in total. The researchers immersed themselves in the local culture by visiting various madafahs and conducting participant observation through participating in rituals as a Dayf (guest), engaging in informal conversations with hosts and other community members. Throughout this process, the researcher maintained a detailed field diary, documenting observations related to design elements, spatial arrangements, and customs and traditions associated with theMadafahs. Additionally, archival records were examined to understand the historical context and the evolving role of Madafahs throughout the various stages of the Druze community’s development. This approach provided a comprehensive background for contemporary ethnographic exploration. The second stage focused on selecting specific case studies. The second stage employed purposeful sampling, selecting seven case studies from 23 visited sites using multiple criteria: (1) Historical significance, Madafahs hosting documented revolutionary events (1896–1927); (2) Vernacular integrity, structures demonstrating authentic basalt construction with minimal modern alteration; (3) Active cultural function, spaces currently serving hospitality/dispute resolution roles; and (4) Geographic distribution, representation across multiple Sweida villages as shown in (Figure 2).

Detailed drawings of the spatial structure, photographic documentation, and personal accounts with owners, community elders, experts, and regular users aged 49–79 were collected. The interviews explored the meanings people assign to their Madafahs and the roles they play in the community. The semi-structured interviews (45–90 min) explored participants’ interpretations of Madafah’s meaning, historical narratives, contemporary functions, and preservation concerns. Topics included: architectural changes over time, social roles (hospitality, dispute resolution, cultural transmission), historical events, and challenges to continuity.

Interviews were conducted in Arabic, audio-recorded with consent, and transcribed. Narrative analysis was employed to identify recurring themes related to cultural identity, historical memory, and community cohesion. Responses were cross-referenced with archival records to validate oral histories. The following sections present the findings (The respondents were coded for easier analysis). (see Appendix A,

Table A1. Participant coding and characteristics.

Code	Age	Education	Gender	Role	Location	Date
Mo1	76	Primary school	M	Farmer	Taraba	12 August 2023
Mo2	68	Primary school	M	Farmer	Orman	22 October 2023
Mo3	79	Primary school	M	Farmer	Qanawat	10 October 2023
Mo4	63	High school	M	Farmer	Al Majdal	7 September 2023
Mo5	51	Primary school	M	Farmer	Salkhad	20 October 2023
Mo6	55	University degree	M	Teacher and researcher	Saleem	10 November 2023
Mo7	59	High school	M	Farmer	Al-Qrayya	7 December 2023
Ex1	52	University degree	M	Local tourist guide	Sweida	5 August 2023
Ex2	43	Master’s degree	M	Heritage professional	Qanawat	10 October 2023
Ex3	65	Higher education	F	Historian & Researcher	Sweida	12 December 2023
Ex4	49	Master’s degree	F	Architect	Sweida	8 October 2023
Cm1	39	High school	M	Local community member	Al-Majdal	7 September 2023
Cm2	52	University degree	M	Local community member	Orman	22 October 2023

for descriptions of the participants). This comprehensive approach aimed to uncover the relationship between the physical form of Al-Madafah and its sociocultural role. By examining both historical narratives and contemporary functions, the study sought to reveal the meanings people attribute to these structures and observe how their sociocultural roles have evolved.

3. Results

3.1. Physical and Spatial Characteristics of Madafahs

Direct observations conducted by the researcher across the visited Madafahs demonstrate that their architectural design integrates functional utility with symbolic meaning. The spatial configuration typically features a central hall bordered on three sides by elevated stone benches (60 cm height), creating a U-shaped communal seating arrangement. The fourth side, or façade, features the main entrance flanked by two windows (Figure 3). The benches are multifunctional, providing both seating and sleeping areas for guests. They are traditionally furnished with felt coverings, carpets, and armrest cushions for comfort. The architectural design of many Madafahs reflects the vernacular heritage of the region, with a particular emphasis on the use of basalt stone, a material characteristic of local construction. Many of these structures are preserved examples of the area’s heritage architecture or have been reconstructed using the same locally sourced materials. The flooring is often paved with black basalt stone tiles.

In the centre of the hall, there is a feature known as Al-Naqra, a circular depression surrounded by a stone frame. This feature is central to Al-Madafah’s role as a gathering space, as it is specifically designed to hold copper tools used in preparing Qahwa Murra, the traditional Arabian bitter coffee (Figure 4). Serving this coffee plays a significant role in the region’s hospitality rituals. In addition to its central hall, the original Madafahs included a courtyard and a stable, designed to accommodate and feed the horses of guests travelling from distant and nearby cities and villages. Al-Madafah was typically constructed outside the family home. If not, it had to have a different entrance, often on land adjacent to or near it, strategically positioned to overlook and supervise a public street or square. This placement underscores its communal role within the town.

3.2. Historical Evolution

To understand the role of Al-Madafah in the lives of the Druze in Jabal al-Arab, it is necessary to study its history from its establishment to the present day, based on archival records and collected oral histories.

3.2.1. Al-Madafah in the Feudal Era 1838–1888 AD

The feudal system prevailed in the mountains from the eighteenth century until the date of the peasants’ revolution known as Al-Amiya (peasants’ revolution), which occurred between 1887 and 1990 [11]. Each village was affiliated with a sheikh who took possession of the land and owned it with his family [22]. Therefore, the sheikh’s house was distinguished from the other houses in the village. During field visits, we noticed that the sheikh’s house in each town is the largest and most prominent structure. Each village had one Madafah, which the sheikh owned [2]. (Ex2) explains: ‘The sheikh received the village’s guests in his Madafah, fed them, and sheltered them’. The Sheikh’s guests at that time were either immigrants seeking work and housing, as the immigration movement hadn’t ended until the late 1990s. So they would stay at the Sheikh’s house until their request was secured, or the Sheikh’s relatives and allies, who came to hold a meeting, and feasts were held for them, or the sheikhs of the neighbouring Bedouin tribes, who were honoured due to the competition between the Bedouins and the inhabitants at that time [2]. The monopoly of hospitality at the Sheikh’s guest house had adverse effects at that time, as it imposed obligations on the farmers, such as offering sacrifices from the animals they raised, such as goats and sheep, and barley to be presented as food for the guests’ horses, because he was performing the duty of hospitality on their behalf [2].

3.2.2. Al-Madafah After the Popular Movement (Peasants’ Revolution) 1889–1890 AD

The peasants obtained the right to own land after its ownership was subject to the sheikh [23], and as a result, the sheikhs’ monopoly on the right to hospitality was removed with the removal of land ownership. Each owner opened his own Madafah and began to receive and honour guests [2]. Some families agreed to open one Madafah, usually in the house of the family’s dignitary or its head, or in an independent location, and everyone shared in the service and expenses of the guest house that represented them and received the family’s guests (Ex3). Another essential institution attached to Al-Madafah is Hasel Al-Door, a cooperative system established by the villagers of Jabal al-Arab. It served as a communal storehouse for grains, primarily barley, to support the region’s hospitality traditions. (Cm2) shared his memories, saying:

‘Each summer, everyone in the village used to contribute barley to the storehouse in proportion to their landholdings. When a guest arrived at any house, the host was allowed to take barley to feed the guest’s horses, which were the main means of transportation at that time’. In this way, people shared the responsibilities of hospitality and upheld the tradition of honouring guests.

3.2.3. Al-Madafah in the Face of Occupation

Throughout history, Madafahs in Jabal al-Arab have been central to revolutionary and nationalist movements. During the French occupation, these guesthouses became vital spaces for resistance, serving as hubs for organising revolutionary activities, uniting communities, and fostering collective action against colonial rule [2]. They also acted as sanctuaries for leaders and symbols of unity, embodying the spirit of defiance and solidarity. The arrest of revolutionary leader Adham Khanjar, who wanted to take refuge at Sultan Basha al-Atrash’s house, symbolised an affront to the dignity of the region. This, as customary laws consider hospitality and protecting guests a great honour, leads to further opposition to the occupiers [3]. The political role of Al-Madafah is no less than its social and cultural role. (Ex3) explains: ‘During the Arab Renaissance and the Great Arab Revolt, Madafahs like those of Moaz Al-Maghoush and Sultan Basha Al-Atrash hosted revolutionary leaders, and celebrated milestones such as the raising of the Arab flag in liberated regions’. ‘Al-Madafah of Sultan Basha Al-Atrash became a centre for anti-colonial resistance, enduring French aerial bombing for its role in rallying revolutionaries like Ibrahim Hanano and Adham Khanjar’ (Ex2). These Madafahs symbolise the enduring values of resistance, freedom, and national pride in Jabal al-Arab.

3.3. Socio-Cultural Role of Madafahs

3.3.1. Al-Madafah as an Educational Institution

New settlers found ways to acquire and share knowledge, using Madafahs as spaces for learning and storytelling, as evidenced by oral histories collected from (Ex3) and (Ex4). Social cohesion was vital under challenging conditions, and Al-Madafah emerged as a hub for fostering strong relationships, solving problems, and facilitating open cultural growth. (Ex4): ‘All disputes dissolved in Madafahs. The shared space and the presence of elders demanded respect’. Al-Madafah also played a central role in bridging educational and communication gaps, particularly at a time when schools and formal institutions were absent. (Ex3): ‘We learned history not from books, but from elders’ nightly narratives’. Young people learned social customs and oratory skills by attending Madafahs. As (Ex3) observed: ‘As kids from the age of ten, we accompanied our fathers to Madafahs where we learned rituals such as greeting attendees with formal phrases and speaking in front of large groups’. Through stories of ancestral bravery, community resilience, and patriotism, children learn to respect their heritage and uphold societal values (Ex4). Beyond its educational function, Al-Madafah served as a venue for decision-making and economic discussions. Guests travelled from nearby villages or farther afield to participate in these forums. News of recent and distant events was shared and debated, and agreements on trade or agricultural matters were often negotiated in these settings, a process (Ex4) described as ‘our ancestors practised democracy before the term reached our dictionary’.

3.3.2. Al-Madafah as a Place to Foster Cultural Identity and Artistic Expression

Culturally, Al-Madafah was integral to the development of artistic and literary traditions [2]. Folk poetry, deeply rooted in Bedouin heritage, flourished within these spaces. Sessions often feature performances accompanied by the Rababa (an ancient Arab bowed stringed instrument), where poets recount incidents and convey lessons through verse (Ex1). These gatherings blended Bedouin influences with immigrants’ cultural contributions, creating a rich tapestry of traditions. Providing a foundation for the region’s evolving cultural identity. As (Ex1) a local tourist guide and a regular Madafah visitor explains: ‘through folk poetry and jofiyat (war songs), people sang for courage and wisdom. And it still matters today, just as it did generations ago. (Ex2) described that over time, Al-Madafah evolved into an institution with its laws, customs, and etiquette. Specific rules govern conduct within Al-Madafah, emphasising proper sitting, speaking, and behaviour, with guests always receiving the highest priority. (Cm1) recalls: ‘The guest calls out, “Where did the hosts go?” and the host responds at the top of his voice, “Come in, you’re most welcome.” and it doesn’t stop there, repeating the welcoming phrases is essential throughout the visit. These phrases vary, and each one requires a different response, which the young generation struggles with.’

3.3.3. Al-Madafah as a Court for Solving Community Problems

Al-Madafah is also a place for reconciliation, where wise elders mediate disputes and foster coexistence. During times of crisis, it has been a centre for providing both financial and moral support to those in need (Ex3). It continues to embody the ideals of morality, respect, and unity, frequently hosting initiatives that aim to bridge divides within Sweida and beyond. A recent online article by Al Jazeera describes Al-Madafah of Sheikh Hikmat Al-Hijri, the spiritual leader of Syria’s Druze, as a ‘Dispute Resolution Tribunal’, especially after the Sweida uprising against the Syrian regime that started on the 17th of August 2023 [24]. Al-Madafah receives guests who discuss with Sheikh Al-Hajari the affairs of the political movement, stand by his opinion, and take his advice on political statements they may issue or on those issued by the political currents they represent. (Ex3) stated that ‘the role of Al-Madafah is no longer limited to treating the social and religious affairs of the members of the sect, but it has become necessary for it to go beyond it to embrace all local political components’ Al-Hijri Madafah is located on a hill 1200 m high in the town of Qanawat where the spiritual presidency of the sect is managed.

3.4. Contemporary Role of Al-Madafah

Some argue that Al-Madafah’s social role has evolved. Historically, Madafah’s primary function was to accommodate guests from distant villages for several nights. With advancements in transportation, this role has diminished, and Al-Madafah is now often used as a reception room for guests whose visits typically last only a few hours. It remains a venue for community events, such as weddings and funerals (Cm1). Urban development since the 1970s has influenced the design and function of Al-Madafah. Modern houses now feature reception rooms, or Diwaniya, which causes Madafah to lose some of its traditional characteristics, such as its large size, private entrance, and annexes (cm²). Despite these changes, many still emphasise its continued social importance, while others view it as a social burden, especially given the challenging economic conditions Syrians have faced since the beginning of the conflict in 2011 (Ex1).

3.5. Case Studies

3.5.1. Al-Madafah as a Museum ‘Abo Samer Madafah’

Madafahs in Jabal al-Arab are living museums that preserve the history of their owners across generations. They are adorned with traditional weapons, coffee pots, and other artefacts that testify to the past (Ex4). One such guesthouse, located in the northern part of Sweida, belongs to Saleem Al-Qassem, also known as Abo Samer. This guesthouse regularly hosts gatherings of poets and other cultural events. He reflects on the significance of these gatherings by saying:

‘The evenings of popular poets have an old heritage character that cannot be complete without a place fragrant with the scent of the ancestors and adorned with their possessions. These items were used for hunting and fighting oppression, and they carry stories of resistance and pride. They captivate us as we listen to poetry and tales, which we honour and strive to revive.’ Many, including Abo Samer, work tirelessly to preserve these artefacts naturally, as part of a broader movement to reconnect with heritage and traditional ways of life. Such efforts reflect the values and spirit of the people of this region (Ex1). Abo Samer Madafah stands out for its privacy and unique collection (Figure 5), which is deeply personal to the family. Each artefact has a story, often with witnesses to verify its history. These possessions are proudly displayed to visitors eager to experience heritage in its authentic form. Abo Samer himself cherishes these memories, saying:

‘This is not just a hobby but a longing for a bygone life where novels, poems, and songs glorified bravery and the fight against the occupier. My Madafah, inherited from my grandfather and father, showcases old weapons used by my ancestors, hunting tools, and traditional equipment. Among these are coffee-making tools like Al-Mehmas for roasting coffee beans and Al-Mehbaj for grinding them, alongside saddlebags and other items once used for riders and their horses.’

His passion for heritage has inspired his family and others. (Ex1) remarks:

‘Abo Samer’s Madafah stands out because of its private collection and the stories tied to each artefact. These tales, verified by witnesses, are shared with visitors eager to experience our heritage in its truest form.’ Abo Samer’s Madafah remains a vibrant venue for cultural evenings and a beacon of popular values and traditions.

3.5.2. AL Jarmaqani Madafah ‘If a Door Could Speak’

The Druze community emphasises celebrating their ancestors’ heroism and unwavering patriotism. This storytelling tradition reflects their deep connection to their homeland and their collective national identity [18]. The owner, Khalil Al-jarmaqani, who inherited Al-Madafah from his father, explains: ‘In our folk songs, we often sing that when a baby is born, they’re fed the love of their homeland before milk. This is what we were raised on, and this is how we raise our children. If this Madafah’s door could speak, it would tell you the story of the men who sacrificed their lives for freedom’.

(Mo2) recounted the dramatic events of 2 November 1896, when Ottoman forces sought to discipline the village rebels. After a violent altercation that began with the killing of a local, ‘Ottoman soldiers fortified themselves in My grandfather’s Madafah. From inside, they shot through its wooden door, killing six villagers. In retaliation, the villagers demolished the roof of the Madafah, killing most of the soldiers inside.’ (Figure 6 left) shows the wooden door still perforated with bullet holes, while (Figure 6 right) provides a view of the entrance in its current context. A testament to this historical episode.

3.5.3. Jazzan Madafah, Ijtimaa Qanawat: A Testimony of Forgiveness

Upon entering, we were immediately offered traditional coffee, followed shortly by a large plate of grapes, a seasonal fruit that is a hallmark of Qanawat village. This practice has become customary; whether it is apples, grapes, or figs, offering seasonal fruit after serving traditional coffee remains an integral part of local hospitality. A prominent photograph, dating back to 1962, hangs at the centre of the main wall (Figure 7). It depicts seven brothers in black and white, with their birth and death dates inscribed beneath each figure. These men are the sons of Mostafa Zarefa, the family patriarch (Mo3). While the exterior of Al-Madafah retains its original basaltic architecture, the interior has been modernised with cement cladding, painted walls, and contemporary furnishings. The owner recounted that the roof and flooring were entirely renovated in 1973 and again in 2000; originally, the roof had been constructed using wooden beams and reeds.

The current owner spoke with pride about the historical significance of this Madafah, particularly its role in hosting the famous Ijtimaa Qanawat (Qanawat Gathering). He shared the story of this historic meeting, which included revolutionary figures such as Sultan Al-Atrash (Mo3). The gathering aimed to unify the Druze community in Al-Jabal by prioritising collective resistance against the French Mandate over personal disputes (Ex3). The participants agreed that forgiveness should prevail in resolving conflicts to strengthen their unity for the greater cause of liberation. This meeting established a lasting communal principle among the Druze: forgiveness for the sake of collective well-being. (Mo3) explained: ‘To this day, when individuals set aside their differences for a larger purpose, they invoke this historic event by saying, “We are still following the gathering of Qanawat”.’

3.6. Morphologies and Living Legacies

3.6.1. Hneidy Madafah in Al-Majdal, ‘A Symbol of Resistance’

We visited the historic Hneidy Madafah in Al-Majdal village (13 km west of Sweida city) in September 2023. Although the residents were absent at the time of arrival, Al-Madafah doors were open, and coffee was hot and ready, as it usually is. ‘There is no guest that comes to Al-Majdal that doesn’t get hosted by this Madafah first,’ as local people reported. The compound is a notable example of vernacular architecture in the region, constructed of basalt stone and spanning approximately four dunams (3850 m²). The house plan features multiple rooms, a central courtyard, horse stables, storage areas, and two interconnected Madafahs, raised 170 cm above ground level (Figure 8). Before entering Al-Madafah, a wide veranda surrounded by stone benches welcomed us. A feature present in many Madafahs in Sweida, these open terraces serve as an open Madafahs during large gatherings.

Although the main structure of Al-Madafah retained its original features, such as the use of basalt stone for walls, floors, and arches, hints of modernisation were present, especially in the second Madafah, including fresh paint on the interior walls, new tiles, and newly furnished benches.

As with most Madafahs, the walls were covered with pictures of ancestors, heroes of the Syrian revolution, a few swords or old weapons, and occasionally, university degrees. The current custodian of the property explained: ‘The dual Madafah structure dates to 1845 AD. Each section features distinct spatial configurations, one oriented for winter use and the other for summer gatherings. The stonework was deliberately salvaged and reinstalled following colonial attempts to destroy the complex in the early 20th century.’ He continues to report that the site endured multiple attacks during Ottoman and French colonial rule, particularly targeting its symbolic role in resistance movements. Family accounts document eight major political assemblies held between 1910 and 1926, including refuge provided to figures from the Great Syrian Revolution (1925–1927). (Ex4) contextualised this legacy: ‘These Madafahs hosted critical conflict resolution meetings. Their stones physically embody the region’s anti-colonial narratives.’ To date, the current custodian and a few visitors have reported that Al-Madafah hosts regular dispute resolution councils, political discussions, and community gatherings, maintaining the hospitality rituals and representing a symbolic importance in local identity formation.

3.6.2. Al-Torshan Madafah in Salkhad: ‘From Father to Son: Inheriting Hospitality’

Salkhad Village, renowned for its imposing citadel perched atop a steep hill, serves as a prominent landmark visible throughout the Southern Hauran region [13]. Amidst this historic landscape stands Al-Torshan house and Madafah, one of the largest in the town (Figure 9). The current owner (Mo5), reflecting on the structure’s significance, shared: ‘Our house attracts many history enthusiasts and architecture students interested in heritage architecture. My grandfather often recounted stories of foreign travellers staying in his Madafah, and my father spoke of busloads of tourists who once visited Sweida to admire its rich architectural heritage.’ The owner emphasised the continuity of traditional hospitality practices: ‘I have watched my father wake up early every day for years to prepare coffee, so it is ready to be served hot at seven in the morning for any visitor. I try to maintain this tradition, although this ritual is an added economic pressure on my shoulders, especially in recent years.’ Serving bitter coffee is a fundamental part of the customs in Sweida. It is the first duty for guests and must always be ready and hot (cm1). Al-Madafah (Figure 8), the most substantial structure on the property, features a terrace overlooking a central square. Its façade is decorated with ornamental stones that appear to have been transported from other locations. The interior boasts double-layer benches, 190 cm wide, with the internal layer raised 5 cm higher than the outer part. The owner explained: ‘This width allowed the benches to serve as sleeping quarters for guests in earlier times.’ The roof represents a traditional construction technique of the region, initially utilising basalt slabs. As these became scarce, builders adapted; they began using wooden beams topped with reeds, a layer of thorns to protect against rodents, and a thick layer of earth. This required annual compressing with a heavy stone roller called madhaleh, dating back to the early nineteenth century. A large portrait of Sultan Basha Al-Atrash dominates Al-Madafah’s interior. ‘This picture was gifted to the Madafah. It’s a treasure and an honour to care for the legacies of our ancestors,’ the owner stated proudly. Reflecting on the changing role of Al-Madafah in contemporary society, he observed: ‘Today, times have changed. We have fewer visitors, and young people have left the country. Mostly older people gather now. We still come together as a family for Eid and major events like weddings or funerals.’ Despite these challenges, the custodian remains committed to intergenerational transmission: ‘I bring my ten-year-old son to Madafahs because I want him to learn to become confident and to continue operating this Madafah after I’m gone.’

3.6.3. Abo Assaf Madafah: A Century of Social and National Initiatives

Abo Assaf Madafah in the village of Saleem stands as a significant cultural landmark that has witnessed over a century of social and political events. According to (Mo6), the guest house was established in 1885, with construction carried out by a builder from the Abo-Fakhr family. ‘The structure was strategically designed to include two distinct sections:

One for summer and another for winter, adjacent on the eastern side. The winter section is enclosed with a door, while the summer section is distinguished by its open design without doors.’

The architectural elements reflect the traditional building techniques of the region, with foundations constructed from basalt stones transported from an ancient site north of the village that had succumbed to natural deterioration (Mo6). The guest house features two central arches, reflecting Roman construction methods (Figure 10). Archaeologist and historian Ali Abo Assaf documents in his book ‘History of the Abo Assaf Family’ that the owner renovated the roof of the guest house in the late nineteenth century, replacing the original wooden structure with poplar wood transported by camel from a nearby farm. More recently, the wooden elements have been replaced with concrete, while the structure’s essential character has been preserved through careful restoration, including the application of white paint to the walls, which maintains the distinctive arches.

The importance of the Abo Assaf Madafah primarily stems from its strategic geographical location. (Ex3) explains: ‘The village of Saleem is one of the first inhabited villages in Jabal al-Arab, notable for its population density and pivotal location between Hauran and Lajat, the desert, and the northern and eastern regions.’ This centrality made Al-Madafah a natural gathering point for travellers and political figures.

The Abo Assaf family gained prominence through their national, social, and humanitarian positions. The family’s reputation attracted guests from various regions, especially figures associated with the Arab awakening and leaders of the Great Arab Revolt (Ex4). A distinctive feature of the guest house was its perpetual accessibility: ‘It has no doors, the first arch was considered the door, and it remained open to receive guests from anywhere.’

Evolution of Contemporary Madafahs: Tradition and Adaptation

Matar Madafah in Al-Qrayya

Contemporary Madafahs maintain many traditional elements while incorporating modern adaptations. These newer structures reflect cultural continuity and societal change through several distinctive features.

We visited the Matar family’s Madafah in Al-Qrayya village, where we observed a separate entrance. Additionally, a service door connecting to the primary residence has become a common element. Despite employing contemporary construction techniques, Al-Madafah remains the largest room in the house, preserving its rectangular form and characteristic elevated benches (Figure 11).

The furnishing of modern Madafahs represents a significant departure from traditional aesthetics. Where historical Madafahs utilised modest furnishings, contemporary owners often express personal taste through carefully selected colours and styles for the bench coverings. The traditional practice of displaying family heritage continues. (Mo7) explains: ‘I keep photographs of my elders side by side with my kids’ university degrees. I am proud of my ancestral reverence and my kids’ modern achievements.’ Architectural elements have also evolved, with windows typically reduced in both number and size compared to historical designs. Curtains, previously absent from traditional Madafahs, have now become a standard feature, offering privacy and decorative elements. Despite these changes, the central area consistently maintains coffee-making implements, preserving the ritual significance of hospitality. (Mo7) adds on: ‘I am blessed to be able to build a house with Madafah and keep this tradition. People living in apartment buildings with limited space replaced Al-Madafah with a modern salon.’ This spatial compression reflects broader urbanisation patterns while maintaining the essential social purpose of the traditional structure.

4. Discussion

This study reveals that Sweida’s Madafahs played a pivotal role in shaping and preserving the cultural identity of the Druze community in southern Syria, and they continue to serve as informal courts for conflict resolution and repositories of cultural memory. This research constitutes the first systematic documentation of Madafahs’ spatial configurations in Sweida, as well as an analysis of their historical significance through oral histories from owners and experts. [26] argue that vernacular architecture functions as dynamic, adaptive systems rather than static heritage objects, capable of accommodating social change while maintaining cultural authenticity. Our findings both support and challenge this framework: while Sweida’s Madafahs demonstrate adaptability, their evolution is constrained not by gradual modernisation but by conflict-driven economic collapse and displacement, conditions absent from Vellinga & Asquith’s analyses, which focus primarily on stable contexts. This reveals limitations in applying Western-developed adaptive reuse theories to conflict-affected regions [26]. Such vernacular structures play pivotal roles in cultural resilience and memory construction, mirroring findings from comparative investigations into regional heritage management and policy frameworks [27]. Contemporary heritage intervention strategies demonstrate that vernacular structures can accommodate new functions while preserving essential spatial, material, and cultural characteristics [28]. While ethnographic methods yielded rich data, several limitations merit acknowledgement. The interviewee demographic (aged 49–79) privileged nostalgia perspectives, potentially underrepresenting younger generations’ pragmatic concerns. Focusing on well-preserved Madafahs introduces survivorship bias, obscuring structures that have declined or closed. These factors suggest our findings represent heritage persistence under optimal conditions rather than a comprehensive contemporary reality.

Madafahs/Diwaniyahs in Jordan/Kuwait transitioned from private to collective ownership, mirroring Sweida’s post-1889 peasant revolt [5,6,7,8,29]. However, contemporary Madafahs in Sweida have reverted to private ownership as expressions of hospitality and platforms for families to showcase their heritage through distinctive narratives. These unique adaptations to social change, reflecting cultural heritage, vernacular building techniques, and the use of local basalt stone, are largely absent from Levantine studies. While Ababsa (2001) documents Raqqa’s urbanised Madafahs as ‘symbols of notability,’ Sweida’s Madafahs retain their rural vernacular integrity despite modernization [9]. Similar to Kuwaiti Diwaniyahs, Sweida’s Madafahs mediate disputes while uniquely integrating folk poetic traditions and ancestral storytelling [7,8]. No prior studies document Madafah’s dual role as revolutionary hubs and repositories of war memory through displays of ancestral weapons, portraits of fighters, and battle flags. Unlike Kuwait’s Diwaniyahs, where younger generations prefer smaller modernised spaces, Sweida’s Madafahs maintain their sociocultural significance and popularity despite economic pressures complicating owners’ ability to sustain hospitality traditions. Unlike European vernacular structures successfully repurposed for tourism, Sweida’s Madafahs face compounded barriers: regional instability, economic collapse, and emigration. Owners face an acute dilemma: maintaining traditional hospitality incurs unsustainable costs, yet abandoning these practices hollows out cultural meaning. The documented morphological changes represent pragmatic survival, raising critical questions: At what point does adaptive modification compromise heritage integrity? And in conflict-affected contexts lacking state support, does preservation become a burden on individual owners rather than a community asset? Madafahs’ basalt architecture and oral histories provide a blueprint for ‘living heritage’ models integrating both material and immaterial preservation. Their role in anti-colonial resistance redefines vernacular spaces as sites of collective memory and defiance, presenting them as exemplary candidates for heritage tourism to revitalise the region. Future studies could expand documentation efforts and explore policy frameworks for preserving Madafahs by including them in Syria’s national list of protected heritage and archaeological sites. Additional research might focus on the systematic collection and preservation of war-related archives embedded in these structures’ artefacts, photographs, and narratives.

5. Conclusions

Al-Madafah stands as a powerful embodiment of vernacular heritage, bridging tangible architecture with intangible cultural memory. This research makes three primary contributions to heritage conservation scholarship: (1) First systematic documentation of Sweida’s Madafahs, their basalt construction, spatial configurations, and socio-cultural functions, filling a critical gap in Levantine architectural studies; (2) Reframing of vernacular spaces beyond preservation objects to active sites of anti-colonial memory and conflict resolution, extending [30]) adaptive systems to conflict-affected contexts; and (3) Integration of tangible and intangible heritage through simultaneous documentation of architectural form and oral narratives, advancing ‘living heritage’ models applicable to other endangered vernacular traditions globally. Amidst modern challenges of urbanisation and economic pressures, preserving both their tangible form and intangible traditions is crucial. By documenting their architectural features alongside rich oral histories, this research underscores the importance of integrated conservation approaches that honour both material and social dimensions of heritage. Protecting Madafahs means safeguarding a vibrant cultural legacy that continues to inspire identity and resilience amid change. Looking forward, the continued existence of these vital spaces is by no means guaranteed. Economic hardship and the pressures of modernisation pose a tangible threat to the traditions of hospitality that give the Madafah its purpose. The preservation of Madafahs is directly applicable to heritage policy development in post-conflict regions where state resources are absent. This study demonstrates that economic sustainability, not merely documentation, determines heritage survival. Policymakers should prioritise: (1) integrating Madafahs into Syria’s national heritage protection frameworks; (2) exploring diaspora-supported heritage tourism models; and (3) developing low-cost adaptive reuse strategies compatible with vernacular techniques. This research provides a methodological template for heritage practitioners documenting endangered institutions in unstable contexts, emphasizing community participation and oral history collection as cornerstones of inclusive conservation practice.