Environmental Archaeology Through Tree Rings: Dendrochronology as a Tool for Reconstructing Ancient Human–Environment Interactions

Abstract

Dendrochronology, the study of tree-ring growth patterns, is a powerful tool for reconstructing past human–environment interactions. This review examines its role within archaeology, focusing on how tree-ring studies contribute to dating wooden artifacts, reconstructing past climates, and understanding timber use in historical buildings and cultural heritage. To explore these applications, we conducted a bibliometric analysis of studies indexed in Web of Science. Our results reveal a marked increase in dendrochronological research over the past 15 years, alongside a broadening of its impact across related fields such as anthropology and environmental sciences. We classify the literature into major thematic areas, including methodological developments, historical and environmental disruptions, art and architecture, mining history, and the ancient timber trade. By highlighting both the advantages and limitations of dendrochronology—such as issues of reference coverage, the need for non-destructive sampling, and the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration—we show how this approach extends beyond archaeology to illuminate wider cultural and environmental contexts. Ultimately, our findings demonstrate the significance of dendrochronology not only for understanding ancient civilizations and cultural heritage, but also for tracing the complex interactions between humans and natural resources across time.

1. Introduction

Dendrochronology has been used for over a century to record climate variations, human activities, and geological events such as floods, fires, and landslides [1]. In archaeology, two key questions often arise: determining the age of an object and identifying the origin of the raw material from which it was made. Dendrochronology can address both [2]. This research can focus on the anatomical characteristics of tree rings, analyzed visually or through image processing [3], or on isotopic analysis of successive rings. Over recent decades, dendrochronology has become a crucial tool in dating archaeological and art-historical objects and determining the provenance of wood. Since it requires measuring tree-ring widths perpendicular to the trunk’s center, destructive methods such as core drilling or cutting are often necessary [4]. While such damage may be justified for archaeological objects due to the scientific value of precise dating and provenance identification, it is less acceptable for art pieces and delicate wooden artifacts. As a result, destructive sampling often restricts the study of certain categories of artifacts, particularly complex wooden structures such as ships and burial assemblages, where the preservation of integrity is a priority. Nevertheless, numerous studies have demonstrated the feasibility of more invasive sampling on shipwrecks and large timbers, particularly when conservation or reconstruction efforts create opportunities for detailed analysis.

Although dendrochronology is a well-established dating method, its application in archaeology—particularly for large and complex structures—is often constrained by practical and commercial considerations. In developer-led (contract) archaeology, time pressures, budget limitations, and the need to minimize interventions on valuable cultural heritage objects frequently limit the extent of sampling. For example, excavation projects linked to construction work may prioritize rapid documentation and conservation over extensive scientific analyses, while museums or heritage institutions may restrict sampling of ship timbers, architectural elements, or burial assemblages to avoid damage that could reduce their exhibition or heritage value. These constraints can result in underexploited datasets. Instead of focusing on lost opportunities, it is hoped that by demonstrating the potential for high-precision dating and provenancing, new strategies—such as integrating dendrochronology into conservation protocols or promoting minimally invasive sampling techniques—will gain broader acceptance in both research-oriented and commercially driven archaeological contexts [5]. Such an approach could significantly enhance chronological resolution and improve reconstructions of past human–environment interactions

Dendroarchaeology primarily establishes the date and origin of wood used in historical and prehistoric structures. Once tree rings are chronologically anchored, wood provenance can be determined with varying spatial precision [2], offering insights into the construction periods of panel paintings, ships, and buildings. Several studies have highlighted dendrochronology’s broad applications in archaeology, art history, and architectural history, fields closely tied to cultural heritage [6,7,8]. Meanwhile, reviews exist for its use in archaeology [9,10], or in forestry [11,12,13,14,15]. Although several valuable reviews—some published in languages other than English—have addressed aspects of the relationship between dendrochronology and archaeology, there is still a need for a comprehensive, up-to-date synthesis accessible to the broader international research community.

The goal of this study was to examine the intersection of dendrochronology and archaeology by analyzing existing research, highlighting its applications in archaeological dating and provenance determination and identifying gaps in the literature to advance future studies in this field.

In order to establish a clear conceptual framework, we define the key terms used throughout this study. Dendrochronology is the scientific method of dating and interpreting annual growth rings in trees, which provides both absolute chronologies and environmental reconstructions. Archaeology is the discipline concerned with studying past human societies through material remains and cultural records. The intersection of dendrochronology and archaeology, often termed dendroarchaeology, lies in the ability to integrate precise tree-ring chronologies with archaeological evidence. This integration not only dates artifacts, buildings, and sites with remarkable accuracy but also reconstructs past environmental conditions, thereby deepening our understanding of human–environment interactions across time.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Bibliographic Database Compilation

The bibliographic database for this study was compiled using two widely recognized academic search platforms: the Web of Science (WoS) Core Collections [16] and Scopus [17]. WoS and Scopus were selected for their comprehensive, systematically curated coverage across disciplines relevant to environmental archaeology and dendrochronology. WoS, provided by Clarivate, is recognized as a publisher-independent resource widely used in bibliometric research due to its rigorous indexing and detailed citation data. Scopus, curated by Elsevier, is the largest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature globally, indexing journals, conference proceedings, and scholarly books [18]. Using both databases ensured broad coverage, minimized disciplinary or regional bias, and increased the reliability of bibliometric mapping. Other databases (e.g., Google Scholar) were excluded due to less consistent indexing policies, limited bibliometric tools, and challenges in reproducibility.

2.2. Search Strategy

The literature search was conducted within the “topic” field, which includes titles, abstracts, and author keywords. Two keyword sets were applied in sequence: (1) tree rings AND archaeology; (2) dendrochronology AND archaeology.

Both searches were limited to publications in English, with no time restriction, to capture the full historical breadth of dendrochronological research in archaeology. Boolean operators, quotation marks, and truncations were used to standardize the search and ensure that relevant synonyms were included. For reproducibility, the exact Boolean strings for WoS and Scopus are provided in Supplementary Table S1.

It is important to clarify that this linguistic limitation refers primarily to the availability of English-language titles and abstracts, not necessarily to the language of the full text. Several studies originally published in other languages were included in our dataset because they contained an English abstract within the databases. Therefore, we did not exclude non-English works entirely, but we limited inclusion to those that provided sufficient English metadata (title and abstract) for screening and thematic categorization.

Examples of such publications include: German: [19,20,21]; French: [22]; Swedish: [23]; Spanish [24]; Russian [25]; and many others.

Although this approach ensures comparability and consistent data extraction, it still excludes relevant studies lacking English metadata. We therefore acknowledge this as a limitation, further discussed in the Conclusions.

2.3. Screening and Eligibility Criteria

Following deduplication, titles and abstracts were screened by two independent reviewers. Any disagreements were resolved by discussion until consensus was reached.

The inclusion criteria were: (1) direct relevance to dendrochronology and archaeology; (2) English-language publications; (3) availability of at least title and abstract.

Exclusion criteria were: (1) reports or documents not retrievable in full (n = 9); (2) publications without abstracts (n = 7); (3) irrelevant publications based on topic (n = 58); (4) non-English publications (n = 23).

This process resulted in a final dataset of 224 publications. The screening workflow is illustrated in Figure 1, following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines [26]. Dual-reviewer screening and the use of a decision log increase reproducibility and reduce subjective bias.

2.4. Thematic Categorization

The second phase involved content analysis of all included articles. Papers were assigned to one of eight thematic categories based on explicit criteria derived from their abstracts and full texts: (1) advances in dendrochronological techniques (e.g., novel measurement methods, X-ray densitometry, isotopic analysis); (2) historical data and locations related to dendrochronology; (3) environmental disruptions and human societies (e.g., climate change, famine, settlement patterns); (4) art and cultural history insights from dendrochronology; (5) architectural and construction history (e.g., timber dating, building techniques); (6) mining history reconstruction using dendrochronology; (7) environmental changes and historical insights; (8) dendrochronology and ancient timber trade.

The assignment process followed these rules: (1) keywords in abstracts were matched to predefined thematic indicators; (2) if a paper addressed multiple themes, the primary theme was selected based on the dominant focus of the study; (3) two reviewers independently assigned categories, with disagreements resolved by discussion.

Figure 2 presents a schematic of thematic assignment and interconnections.

2.5. Bibliometric Analysis and Metrics

Bibliometric analysis considered ten variables: publication types, research areas, publication years, countries, authors, institutions, language, journals, publishers, and keywords. Data processing involved: Web of Science Core Collection tools (v5.35) [16] and Scopus tools [17] for descriptive bibliometric indicators; Excel (v2024) [27] for data cleaning, frequency counts, and cross-tabulation; Geochart (Google Developers API) [28] for mapping geographic distributions; and VOSviewer (v1.6.20) [29] for network analysis and visualization, including co-authorship, keyword co-occurrence, and citation mapping

2.6. Network Metrics

Total Link Strength (TLS) and Links were evaluated to quantify influence and connectivity. Links are the number of direct connections an article or author has (e.g., co-authorship ties). TLS are the cumulative weight of these connections, accounting for intensity and frequency of collaboration or co-citation.

These metrics help identify influential research teams and understand the structure of the field.

2.7. Justification for English-Only Selection

English-language publications were prioritized for three reasons: English is the dominant language in international scientific communication; bibliometric tools in WoS and Scopus provide more complete metadata for English publications.

Restricting to English ensures replicability. This limitation is acknowledged, and future research could expand to multilingual bibliometric analysis.

2.8. Data Transparency and Reproducibility

To maximize reproducibility, all database searches, Boolean strings, inclusion/exclusion rules, deduplication criteria, thematic assignment rules, and software versions are explicitly documented. All articles found, duplicates eliminated, and articles used as data-bases are presented in Supplementary Table S1: this ensures that an independent group can replicate the bibliometric dataset and thematic classification.

3. Results

3.1. Bibliometric Analyse

We catalogued 224 publications (1982–2024) relating to dendrochronology in archaeological and anthropological contexts. Most publications are research articles (80%), with reviews (7%), book chapters (5%), and editorial materials and proceedings papers (4% each) forming a smaller but notable share (Figure 3).

The annual distribution of publications is uneven, but a statistically significant growth trend is observed in the last 15 years. A linear regression of annual counts (2008–2024) yields a positive slope of +1.9 articles/year (R² = 0.62, p < 0.01), confirming an accelerating trajectory. The analyzed period begins in 1982, which represents the earliest year for which relevant publications on this topic were indexed in the Web of Science database, indicating the start of documented research in this field (Figure 4). Compared with the 1980s–1990s baseline (mean = 2.3 papers/year), the 2010s–2020s show a 4-fold increase (mean = 9.7 papers/year). This trend underscores the increasing integration of tree-ring data with archaeological and environmental reconstructions. This trend reflects the increasing integration of tree ring data with other archaeological information to provide a more comprehensive understanding of past tree behavior in relation to environmental conditions. Tree rings provide a highly precise chronological tool and a valuable proxy for past climatic and environmental conditions.

In total, the 224 publications analyzed are distributed across 24 distinct research areas. The most represented categories are Archaeology (58 articles, 26%), Anthropology (38 articles, 17%), and Forestry (28 articles, 12%). Other fields include Environmental Sciences, Ecology, Geosciences, History, Botany, Paleontology, Architecture, Geography, Remote Sensing, and Soil Science. Less frequent but still notable are cross-disciplinary areas such as Heritage Conservation, Agricultural Sciences, Wood Science and Technology, and Environmental Engineering. Fields such as History, Architecture, and Heritage Science represent smaller shares (<5% each), but highlight dendrochronology’s application to cultural heritage management (Figure 5). Cross-disciplinary categories (e.g., Agricultural Sciences, Remote Sensing, Environmental Engineering) demonstrate the widening scope of dendrochronological research. This diversity highlights how dendrochronology is not restricted to the traditional domains of tree-ring studies (forestry and climatology), but has been increasingly adopted in archaeology and anthropology to explore past human–environment interactions. The presence of studies in areas such as history, architecture, and heritage science reflects the relevance of dendrochronology for cultural resource management, particularly in dating wooden structures and artifacts. Meanwhile, contributions in geosciences, ecology, and environmental sciences emphasize the use of tree-ring data to reconstruct past landscapes, climate variability, and ecological processes that shaped human societies.

The bibliometric analysis identified 54 countries spanning five continents that have contributed to publications on dendrochronology in archaeological and anthropological contexts. This reflects the global spread of research networks and the interdisciplinary nature of the field. While research activity is concentrated in North America and Europe, studies also emerge from Asia, South America, Africa, and Oceania, reflecting regional applications of tree-ring science to local archaeological and environmental questions. For example, case studies from the Middle East focus on ancient water management and settlement histories, while work in South America, research integrates dendrochronology with Andean archaeology and paleoenvironmental reconstructions. Similarly, research in Africa and Oceania, though smaller in number, demonstrates the expansion of the method to new cultural and ecological settings.

When ranked by raw output, the USA leads (64 articles), followed by England (28), Germany (23), and France (22) (

Table 1. Countries with the highest number of publications on tree rings and archaeology, 1982–2024, based on WOS and Scopus.

Current Number	Country	Documents	Citations	Total Link Strength
1	USA	64	5434	69
2	England	28	5527	73
3	Germany	23	4746	57
4	France	22	5013	55
5	Switzerland	17	4784	57
6	Netherlands	15	4573	43
7	Italy	8	4391	36
8	Sweden	9	4331	29
9	Australia	6	4380	24
10	Spain	8	2172	23
11	New Zealand	7	4447	22
12	Denmark	6	4396	20
13	China	5	4342	20
14	Poland	10	64	11
15	Canada	8	233	4
16	Argentina	4	29	2

).

However, raw counts do not account for overall scientific productivity. Normalizing by each country’s total archaeological output (Scopus, 1982–2024), dendrochronology articles represent 0.9% of USA archaeology publications, but 2.6% for England and 3.1% for Germany, suggesting that smaller European countries devote proportionally more attention to tree-ring research.

Network analysis groups countries into seven clusters based on co-authorship links (Figure 6). Two large clusters dominate: (i) a Central/Northern European cluster led by Germany (Austria, Finland, Norway, Poland, Turkey, New Zealand, Wales), characterized by long-standing dendrochronological traditions; and (ii) a transatlantic cluster led by the USA (France, Argentina, Chile, Côte d’Ivoire, French Guiana), reflecting the spread of dendrochronology to tropical and subtropical settings.

The bibliometric analysis shows that the countries of origin of authors working on dendrochronology and environmental archaeology can be grouped into seven distinct clusters, each containing a minimum of four countries. Two of these clusters stand out as the most significant. Cluster 1 is led by Germany, and also includes Austria, Finland, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, Turkey, and Wales. This cluster is characterized by strong traditions in dendrochronological research, particularly within Central and Northern Europe, where tree-ring science has long been applied to archaeological questions such as settlement history, timber use, and climatic reconstruction. The inclusion of New Zealand and Turkey in this group highlights international collaborations and the application of methods across both hemispheres.

Cluster 2 is led by the USA, followed by France, Argentina, Chile, Côte d’Ivoire, and French Guiana. This cluster reflects the central role of North and South America in expanding dendrochronological studies into diverse ecological and cultural contexts. In particular, the USA has historically pioneered dendroarchaeology and dendroclimatology, while France and its overseas territories contribute to methodological development and applications in tropical regions. Argentina and Chile provide significant case studies from the Southern Cone, including work on past climate variability and its impacts on human societies.

These clusters illustrate both geographic diversity and thematic specialization, with European research often focused on temperate archaeological contexts and North/South American studies extending methods to subtropical and tropical environments (Figure 6).

The most influential institutions in this field include the University of Arizona (12 articles), a historic leader in dendrochronology, especially in archaeological dating and climate reconstruction; the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), France (12 articles), which emphasizes methodological innovation and interdisciplinary applications; and BOKU University, Vienna (4 articles), which represents the strong Central European tradition in dendrochronological and environmental research. These institutions anchor international collaborations and provide key methodological frameworks for the field.

Articles on this topic are published across a remarkably wide spectrum of 109 journals, reflecting the interdisciplinary nature of dendrochronological research that bridges archaeology, climatology, and ecology. The leading journal is Dendrochronologia (18 articles), which serves as the primary venue for specialized tree-ring research. The journal Radiocarbon (14 articles) emphasizes methodological aspects of chronology building and calibration, while the Journal of Archaeological Science (13 articles) represents the integration of dendrochronology into broader archaeological inquiry. Together these three journals represent only 20% of total output, suggesting broad disciplinary reach. The distribution across such a wide range of journals highlights the relevance of dendrochronology to multiple research communities and the interdisciplinary impact of this work (

Table 2. Journals with the highest number of publications on tree rings and archaeology, 1982–2024, based on WOS and Scopus.

Current Number	Journal	Documents	Citations	Total Link Strength
1	Journal of archaeological science	13	666	33
2	Dendrochronologia	18	156	22
3	Radiocarbon	14	590	19
4	International journal of nautical archaeology	7	66	12
5	Tree-ring research	7	89	12
6	Forests	2	13	7
7	Plos one	3	61	6
8	Journal of archaeological science-reports	6	39	5
9	Nature	3	74	5
10	Holocene	4	148	4
11	Antiquity	4	77	3
12	Quaternary international	6	36	3

, Figure 7).

The majority of articles are published in English (202 articles, 90%). However, articles have also been identified in other languages: French (7 articles), German (6 articles), Russian (6 articles) and Bulgarian, Croatian, and Portuguese (each with 1 article).

A total of 55 publishers have published articles on this topic. The most representative are: Elsevier (34 articles); Springer (15 articles); Wiley (15 articles); Cambridge University Press (14 articles); and University of Arizona Dept. Geosciences (10 articles).

The most frequently used keywords are: dendrochronology, archaeology, tree-rings and climate (

Table 3. Most frequently used keywords in publications on tree rings and archaeology, 1982–2024, based on WOS and Scopus.

Current Number	Keyword	Occurrences	Total Link Strength
1	archaeology	73	203
2	dendrochronology	80	193
3	vegetation	18	73
4	tree-rings	23	70
5	climate	20	67
6	radiocarbon	16	59
7	history	14	58
8	calibration	18	57
9	variability	12	55
10	record	11	51
11	oak	10	42
12	wood	10	40
13	drought	10	33
14	Cultural heritage	8	32
15	dendroarchaeology	12	26
16	dendroclimatology	8	30

).

Keyword analysis (Figure 8; Table 3) reveals four thematic clusters: (1) Archaeology–Environment Interactions: archaeology, climate-change, drought, fire history, Holocene, vegetation, historical ecology; (2) Chronological Methods: calibration, chronology, radiocarbon, wiggle-matching, New Zealand; (3) Resource Use and Land Management: timber trade, forest management, construction, settlement; (4) Cross-disciplinary Applications: heritage conservation, isotopic analysis, dendrochemistry.

The largest, Cluster 1 the field’s central focus on human–environment interactions reflecting the breadth of environmental archaeology applications, particularly the use of tree rings to understand human–environment interactions, ecological dynamics, and long-term landscape transformations.

Cluster 2–4 highlight methodological advances and applied contexts such as architecture, mining, and cultural heritage, emphasizes methodological approaches and chronological precision. This grouping shows the critical role of dendrochronology in anchoring archaeological chronologies and enhancing radiocarbon calibration curves, with specific reference to Southern Hemisphere challenges (e.g., New Zealand).

Together, these keyword clusters demonstrate the dual focus of the field: one on applied archaeological and environmental reconstructions, and the other on improving chronological and methodological tools that underpin such reconstructions (Figure 8).

3.2. Literature Review

3.2.1. Advances in Dendrochronological Techniques

Dendrochronology is a highly precise method for dating the formation of tree rings, providing a reliable chronological framework for a variety of scientific applications. One of its key branches, dendroecology, employs dendrochronological data to investigate ecological and environmental processes [30]. Another emerging subfield, dendrochemistry, focuses on the chemical composition of wood, analyzing tree rings to infer environmental and climatic changes, particularly under recent evidence of climate change impacts on natural resources [31,32]. A specialized application of dendrochemistry, forensic dendrochemistry, is utilized in resolving environmental disputes, particularly in identifying the timing and sources of anthropogenic contamination [1].

The increasing demand for precise radiocarbon (14C) calibration in archaeology has led to significant advancements in dendrochronological research. The IntCal20 calibration dataset, developed through collaborative efforts of 20 radiocarbon laboratories, represents a substantial improvement over its predecessor, IntCal13. Notably, 60% of the data in IntCal20 were generated through accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS), compared to just 1% in IntCal13. The expansion of high-precision AMS measurements has markedly enhanced the reliability of the calibration curve, enabling archaeologists to achieve more accurate dating of ancient materials [33,34].

Efforts to develop non-destructive dendrochronological dating techniques began in the late 1980s, drawing inspiration from medical computed tomography (CT) technology. Early attempts using medical CT scanners were largely unsuccessful, leading to a temporary suspension of research. However, renewed interest in the early 2000s led to the application of industrial microfocus X-ray computed tomography, which has yielded promising results in non-invasive dendrochronological analysis [35].

Radiocarbon wiggle-match dating is an innovative technique that integrates radiocarbon dating with dendrochronological sequences. This method is particularly beneficial in cases where traditional dendrochronological dating is unfeasible, such as in waterlogged intertidal and marine timbers. By aligning multiple radiocarbon measurements with known tree-ring sequences, wiggle-match dating offers an effective means of establishing precise chronologies for submerged wooden structures [36].

Stable oxygen isotope dendrochronology is another precision-dating approach, particularly useful for fast-growing, complacent tree rings and trees from humid, temperate regions. Unlike traditional dendrochronology, this method does not rely on climate-induced growth variations but instead capitalizes on the stable isotopic signals from summer precipitation, allowing for robust dating even in less climatically sensitive species [37].

The ongoing evolution of dendrochronological methodologies continues to refine and expand its applications in archaeology. Advances in radiocarbon calibration, non-destructive imaging, and isotopic analysis provide increasingly sophisticated tools for understanding ancient environments and human activity.

3.2.2. Historical Data and Locations Related to Dendrochronology in History

Dendrochronological results in historical studies have been recorded for events dating from ancient times to the present. The inventory of published articles on this topic is presented in

Table 4. Articles citing the use of Dendrochronology in History.

Current Number	Period	Location	Studied Aspect	Cited By
1	Neolithic	northern Alpine foreland	Perspectives on settlement	Hofmann et al., 2016 [38]
2	Late Bronze to early Iron Age	Luokesa lake, Lithuania	The prehistoric lake settlement tradition	Pranckėnaitė, 2014 [39]
3	5th and 2nd millennia BC	Ohrid, North Macedonia	Well-replicated tree-ring chronologies for different species	Bolliger et al., 2023 [40]
4	3100–1800 BC	Great Basin Survivance (USA)	Challenges and Windfalls of the Neoglaciation/Late Holocene Dry Period	Thomas et al., 2023 [41]
5	2900 BC	Nord West Germany	Environmental change, bog history and human impact	Leuschner et al., 2007 [42]
6	2158–2142 BC	Sovjan, Albania	Early Bronze Age dendrochronology	Maczkowski et al., 2021 [43]
7	the 2nd Millennium BC	Tell el-Daba site in the Nile Delta, Egypt	The Chronology of Tell El-Daba	Kutschera et al., 2012 [44]
8	2220–718 BC	Anatolia, Turkey	The absolute chronology of the eastern Mediterranean	Kuniholm et al., 1996 [45]
9	9th and late 5th–4th centuries BC	Key Sayan-Altai monuments, Russia	Monuments chronology from the Scythian period	Zaitseva et al., 1997 [46]
10	fifth century BC	Central Anatolia, Turkey	Painting on wood during antiquity	Demeter, 2010 [47]
11	AD 40–60	France	Dendrochronological evidence for long-distance timber trading in the Roman Empire	Bernabei et al., 2019 [48]
12	AD 124–125	Netherlands	Dendrochronological evidence for large-scale road building along the Roman limes	Visser, 2015 [49]
13	AD 100–300	Northern Europe	Network analysis of tree-ring material reveals spatial and economic relations of Roman timber in the Continental North-Western provinces	Visser, 2021 [50]
14	AD 300–700	Europe	Slavic expansion	Andersen, 2023 [51]
15	AD 311–900	north-western China	Dating of the Reshui-1 Tomb	Li et al., 2015 [52]
16	AD Seventh to the Eleventh Century	Europe	Western Slavs	Brather, 2011 [53]
17	AD 710–794	Nara, Japan	Tree-ring dates of excavated wooden containers	Maeda et al., 2024 [54]
18	AD 850–1140	Pueblo Bonito, Mexico	Origin for the Plaza tree	Guiterman et al., 2020 [55]
19	AD 1000–2000	southern French Alps	The impact of populations on the local mountain wood stock	Gamba et al., 2024 [56]
20	AD 1183–1430	Turku, Finland	Comparing palaeoclimatic signals inferred from archaeological, subfossil and living Pinus sylvestris data	Helama et al., 2024 [57]
21	AD 13th century	Central Andes, Bolivia	The chronology of chullpas (burial towers and storage chambers)	Morales et al., 2013 [58]
22	AD 1495	Casks from royal flagship Gribshunden	Danish–Norwegian	Hansson et al., 2022 [59]
23	AD 1656	Gallipoli Peninsula, Turkey	Ottoman fortress of Seddülbahir	Akkemik et al., 2020 [60]
24	AD 1690	Sussex coast, UK	A gun Dutch ship lost during the Battle of Beachy Head	Beattie-Edwards et al., 2018 [61]
25	AD from the mid-1700s to the early 1900s	northern Minnesota, USA	Historical water routes during the North American fur trade	Larson et al., 2019 [62]
26	AD Eighteenth Century	Nahuel Huapi, Patagonia	Spanish colonial settlement	Caruso et al., 2023 [63]
27	AD 1789	Catawba Valley, Virginia, USA	Construction history of a farm settlement	Grissino-Mayer et al., 2013 [64]
28	AD 18th–19th century	Poland	Tar production in European temperate forest	Szubska et al., 2023 [65]
29	AD 2019	Notre Dame, Paris, France	Naming, relocating and dating the woods of Notre-Dame	Penagos et al., 2024 [66]
30	-	Spain	Dendroarchaeology in the Iberian Peninsula	Dominguez-Delmas et al., 2015 [67]
31	-	USA	Neotectonics of the upper Mississippi embayment	Schweig and Van Arsdale, 1996 [68]

.

3.2.3. Environmental Disruptions and Human Societies

Natural Disasters and Climate Variability

Despite widespread awareness of the destructive potential of natural disasters, there remains a common misconception that landscapes and ecosystems are inherently stable and unchanging unless impacted by human activity. Green spaces, especially those surrounding urban areas, provide essential opportunities for recreation and social activities, their importance being acknowledged in the 2030 EU Biodiversity Strategy [69,70]. However, historical and environmental records indicate that landscapes have undergone significant transformations over time due to various natural drivers such as climate fluctuations, volcanic eruptions, coastal erosion, floods, wildfires, and earthquakes. While abrupt environmental changes prior to the mid-Holocene were largely of non-human origin, current Arctic warming is predominantly attributed to anthropogenic factors [71].

Tree-ring studies have played a crucial role in uncovering the environmental conditions associated with historical crises. A dendrochronological analysis of baldcypress trees in the Chesapeake region has provided independent evidence of severe drought during the early years of the Jamestown colony. These findings enhance historical accounts of extreme famine, poor water quality, intercultural tensions, and high mortality rates, offering a clearer perspective on the colony’s struggles [72].

One of the most debated issues in Aegean archaeology concerns the absolute dating of the catastrophic Santorini eruption, which had a profound impact on civilizations across Egypt, the Middle East, and Europe. While traditional archaeological methods and natural scientific dating techniques have yielded varying estimations, the event is generally placed between the mid-17th and late-16th centuries BCE [73].

A similar mystery surrounded the source of the massive A.D. 1257 eruption, one of the largest of the past 7000 years. Recent research has identified the Samalas volcano, part of the Rinjani Volcanic Complex in Indonesia, as the source of this event. The eruption’s impact was far-reaching, contributing to significant climatic disruptions on a global scale [74].

Climatic Extremes and Societal Collapse

Analysis of North American tree rings has confirmed prolonged periods of severe drought, including the Great Drought of the late 13th century over the Colorado Plateau. These findings align with evidence of a succession of extreme droughts in the western United States during the Terminal Classic Period in Mesoamerica. While some of these climatic extremes occurred far from major Mesoamerican cultural centers, the full extent of their influence on central Mexico remains an area of ongoing research.

Historical documentation from the Aztec era provides additional insight into the link between climate extremes and societal impacts. Codices describe significant droughts, including the drought of One Rabbit, illustrating how tree-ring data can complement written historical sources in reconstructing past environmental conditions and their effects on human civilizations [75].

3.2.4. Art and Cultural History: Insights from Dendrochronology

Understanding cultural change in archaeology requires a perspective that acknowledges “descent with modification” in human societies, a concept that revisits themes once central to culture-history approaches. The transmission of cultural traits is deeply influenced by fluctuations in prehistoric populations, which often go undetected in the archaeological record. Dendrochronology provides a crucial tool for uncovering these hidden patterns, offering precise chronological frameworks that help link population dynamics to cultural transformations. This is exemplified by high-resolution dating of Neolithic settlements in the circum-Alpine region, where tree-ring analysis has shed light on population shifts and their cultural consequences [76].

Art and architecture serve as vital expressions of identity and shared heritage, as demonstrated by the Ancestral Pueblo people, who adorned their homes and ceremonial structures with painted murals. These artworks, documented in rare instances at Gallina Phase sites, provide insight into social cohesion and cultural continuity over time [77].

In Eastern Tennessee, dendrochronological analysis has contributed to the study of Mississippian culture’s occupational history, though challenges persist. Issues such as poor wood preservation, limited ring counts, the absence of long-term reference chronologies, and inconsistent sampling methods complicate efforts to establish precise dating frameworks for prehistoric sites [78].

Further integrating dendrochronology with paleoenvironmental data, archaeologists have expanded their understanding of Mississippian social systems (ca. AD 1000–1600) in the Midwest and Southeastern United States. This research highlights the intricate relationships between climate change, environmental shifts, and social complexity, demonstrating how tree-ring studies contribute to reconstructing past human–environment interactions.

By bridging art, cultural history, and environmental archaeology, dendrochronology continues to refine our understanding of ancient civilizations, revealing the dynamic interplay between human creativity, societal transformations, and ecological conditions.

3.2.5. Architectural and Construction History: Dendrochronological Perspectives

Dendrochronology has significantly contributed to the study of historical construction techniques, revealing insights into material choices, trade networks, and settlement patterns across different civilizations. From prehistoric enclosures to medieval churches, tree-ring analysis enhances our understanding of architectural history and the evolution of building practices.

Across Europe and beyond, dendrochronological investigations have proven essential in reconstructing human–environment interactions through time, revealing how wood selection, trade, and architecture reflect both ecological availability and socio-economic organization.

In northern Europe, the Iron Age enclosure in Schleswig-Holstein (Germany) demonstrates the deliberate use of oak, hazel, and holly in construction, while the absence of beech and hornbeam—species common in the region today—underscores the significant shifts in local vegetation and human selection strategies since prehistory [79]. Similarly, studies in England and France highlight how timber use reflects both cultural and environmental adaptation. In Southwell (UK), the identification of mid-14th-century oak timbers in vernacular buildings provides one of the earliest dendrochronologically dated examples of local architecture [80], while in the French Alps, repeated repairs and the reuse of wood in mountain pastures reveal the long-term continuity of alpine settlement and sustainable material use [22].

In urban and defensive contexts, dendrochronology contributes to refining chronologies and understanding construction logistics. For instance, analyses of the defensive walls in Żagań (Poland) combined tree-ring and radiocarbon dating to confirm phases of fortification, illustrating the synergy between scientific and architectural data [81]. In Québec City, identification of locally sourced white cedar in a 17th-century palisade around the Intendant’s Palace reveals how colonial builders relied on indigenous resources to meet defensive and administrative needs [82].

In maritime and infrastructural settings, the method reveals extensive timber supply networks that connected distant regions. The Roman harbor at Forum Hadriani (Netherlands) shows organized long-distance transport of oak from southern Germany, the southeastern Netherlands, and later the Mosel basin—evidence of the Roman Empire’s logistical sophistication in distributing construction materials [83]. A similar pattern emerges from the Yenikapı jetty in Istanbul (Turkey), where oak imported from Greece and Kosovo for the 1762 structure and fir from Kastamonu for 1906 repairs reflect enduring traditions of regional trade and resource dependency in Ottoman maritime infrastructure [84].

At a broader geographic scale, dendrochronological work also uncovers unexpected cultural and ecological linkages. In the Buchta Nakhodka settlement (Western Siberia), tree-ring and isotopic analyses suggest architectural affinities with Iceland and northern Fennoscandia rather than with the modern Nenets population. This surprising evidence supports the interpretation that these ancient communities may have been connected to the semi-legendary Sihirtya people known from Nenets folklore, demonstrating dendrochronology’s capacity to bridge scientific data with ethnographic and mythological records [85].

Finally, studies of the Romanesque churches in Sweden provide a precise temporal framework for early medieval ecclesiastical architecture (AD 1131–1157), constructed from locally sourced oak and pine. Together, these examples highlight how dendrochronology integrates environmental, technological, and cultural dimensions of the past, offering a multi-scalar understanding of human adaptation to changing landscapes across continents and millennia [86].

Through these case studies, dendrochronology continues to illuminate the history of construction, resource management, and cultural exchange, providing an unparalleled level of chronological precision to archaeological research.

3.2.6. Reconstructing Mining History Through Dendrochronology

Dendrochronological studies have provided significant insights into the history of mining activities across various regions and time periods. The application of tree-ring dating to preserved wooden structures in mining sites has helped reconstruct timelines of resource extraction and technological developments in mining practices.

At Cagle Saltpetre Cave, USA, tree-ring dating of wooden leaching vats—used for extracting calcium nitrate from mined sediments to produce saltpeter—revealed that mining and processing activities took place intermittently throughout the 19th century. The well-preserved timbers allowed for precise chronological reconstruction, highlighting changes in saltpeter-processing technology over time [87].

In the Northern Pyrenees, analysis of charcoal production remains on a kiln terrace in the “Forêt de Bernadouze,” a historic iron production valley, indicated that charcoal production occurred between 1924 and 1942. The study identified a transition from occasional use to high-intensity utilization of the terrace, shedding light on shifts in resource demand and land use [88].

Research on medieval mining activity in the polymetallic district of Faravel, located in the Massif des Écrins (Southern French Alps), uncovered nine distinct mining phases between 1059 and 1243. The presence of late wood in most samples suggests that logging primarily took place during late fall and early winter. These findings, combined with historical, palynological, and archaeological data, indicate that mining operations were seasonal, short-term, and low-intensity, occurring after major agropastoral activities and utilizing rudimentary techniques with minimal impact on forest cover [89].

The prehistoric Hallstatt salt mine and its associated burial ground represent one of the most renowned archaeological sites in Europe, dating back to the Hallstatt period (800–400 BCE). Dendrochronological analysis of mine timbers from the “Christian von Tuschwerk, Alter Grubenoffen” and other Bronze and Iron Age mines has allowed for a reconstruction of mining history at the site. The study documented the use of roundwood and minimally processed timbers for shafts, platforms, and other structural elements [90].

Investigations into silver mining in medieval Central Europe have provided insight into ore processing and landscape changes on the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands. Dendrochronology has helped reconstruct medieval forest composition, revealing a predominance of fir with spruce and alder admixtures, while surrounding slopes were covered by broadleaf trees. The identification of wooden technical structures, stamped and ground ores, gangue, and fragments of grinding stones indicates the presence of an ore and stamp mill linked to ore-washing facilities [91].

Dendrochronological studies in Lower Silesia (SW Poland) have focused on medieval polymetallic ore mines. Analyses of timbers from coniferous species, including Pinus sylvestris, Abies alba, Picea abies, and Larix decidua, identified the oldest samples from the late 15th and early 16th centuries, though 19th-century timbers were most prevalent [92]. Similarly, studies in Poland’s Wieliczka Salt Mine—one of the oldest mines in the country—revealed spruce wood dating from the 15th century, with subsequent timber use extending through the 16th, 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries [93].

Overall, dendrochronology has proven to be a valuable tool in reconstructing mining histories, revealing patterns of resource exploitation, technological evolution, and environmental impacts across different mining regions and historical periods.

3.2.7. Environmental Changes and Historical Insights from Dendrochronology

Recent research in northwestern North America has demonstrated that historical Indigenous land-use and forest management practices have resulted in the persistence of relict forest gardens. These landscapes, characterized by edible fruit, nut, and berry-producing trees and shrubs, continue to grow adjacent to archaeological village sites. Centuries, or even millennia, of indigenous forest management have contributed to the heterogeneity of landscapes within otherwise conifer-dominated woodlands of the Pacific Northwest. While forest gardens in this region have only recently been formally recognized in scientific literature, they have long been acknowledged within Indigenous communities [94,95,96]. Globally, historical and ancient forest management practices have been well documented using archaeological, ethnographic, and paleoecological methods, particularly in Neotropical and Afrotropical regions [97,98,99].

Tree-ring research has yielded a highly detailed climatic history for the northern Southwest, USA. This record of climatic fluctuations and extreme events provides insight into the selection pressures that influenced the stabilization of specialized agricultural strategies in the region’s arid environment. The Anasazi occupation of many areas could not withstand the “Great Drought” of the 1270s, leading to widespread abandonment. While locally this event led to agricultural collapse, from a broader temporal and spatial perspective, it functioned as part of the selective regime that shaped subsequent human adaptations to the northern Southwest [100].

The magnitude, pace, and ecological effects of Native American depopulation following 1492 CE remain among the most debated topics in American Indian history. One critical question is whether depopulation was rapid and catastrophic—potentially altering even the global atmosphere—or a more gradual process that unfolded over time. Studies indicate that while the population decline was severe and irreversible, it occurred nearly a century after initial European contact. This dramatic population crash led to significant environmental changes, including increased forest growth and the proliferation of frequent forest fires [101].

In the Northern Apennines (Italy), research on the evolution of historic agroforestry landscapes has highlighted their role in mitigating soil erosion and deposition. GIS modeling suggests that the restoration of these traditional land-use systems could significantly reduce land degradation rates in the region, reinforcing the potential benefits of agroforestry for sustainable land management [102].

In the Northern Alps (Switzerland), human activities began influencing the high mountain landscape as early as the Bronze Age. The expansion of pasturelands, combined with climatic fluctuations, led to significant ecological transformations. Human land-use practices adapted to changing environmental conditions, with fire playing a crucial role in land management. Forest clearance peaked during the late Middle Ages (AD 1300–1500) and triggered natural disasters that were further exacerbated by the extreme climatic conditions of the ‘Little Ice Age’ (AD 1600–1850) [103].

These studies collectively highlight the interplay between environmental history and human land-use practices, demonstrating the long-term impact of human activity on landscapes and ecosystems across different regions and time periods.

3.2.8. Dendrochronology and Ancient Timber Trade

Examples of identified articles related to the use of Dendrochronology in the timber trade are presented in

Table 5. Articles citing Dendrochronology and the ancient timber trade.

Current Number	Studied Aspect	Location	Cited By
1	Agathis australis (D. Don) Loudon (kauri) chronology	New Zealand	Boswijk et al., 2006 [104]
2	Deforestation	south coastal Turkey	Akkemik et al., 2012 [105]
3	Distinguishing root- and stem-wood of Picea abies	Trentino region, Italy	Bernabei and Bontadi, 2011 [106]
4	Long-term retrospection on mangrove development	general	Dahdouh-Guebas and Koedam, 2008 [107]
5	Matai—Prumnopitys taxifolia (Banks & Sol. ex D. Don) de Laub. and miro—Prumnopitys ferruginea (G.Benn. ex D. Don) C.N.Page chronologies	New Zealand	Boswijk et al., 2021 [108]
6	Regional patterns of settlement and woodland developments	Lake Constance	Billamboz, 2014 [109]
7	The provenance of the wood used in an 18th-century Spanish ship of the Royal Navy	Spain	Domínguez-Delmás et al., 2020 [110]
8	Timber for the trenches in First World War	North-west Europe	Haneca et al., 2018 [111]
9	Bay of Ireland, West Mainland, Orkney, UK	Dendrochronological investigation of a prehistoric oak timber	Timpany et al., 2017 [112]
10	Road building along the Roman limes	Netherlands	Visser, 2015 [49]
11	Oak chronologies	Northern Belarus	Yermokhin, 2024 [113]

.

3.2.9. Wood Utilization and Woodland Management in Archaeological Contexts

Dendrochronological research has been instrumental in reconstructing settlement patterns, land use, and environmental interactions throughout history. During the Neolithic period (~4000–2400 BC), the lake-shore settlements of Lake Constance exhibit a strong correlation between demographic developments and woodland management. The widespread forest coverage at that time was systematically altered through human activity, with woodland management directly linked to settlement expansion and climatic fluctuations [103].

Archaeological excavations and peat bogs have yielded wood and charcoal fragments, contributing to the development of dendrochronological master chronologies. These master curves have been crucial for dating and environmental reconstructions [114,115].

3.2.10. Dendrochronology and Timber Transport in the Roman Period

The Roman period saw large-scale timber exploitation and transport for infrastructure projects. Military structures along the Lower Rhine limes were built with timber sourced from a single region, likely located between Xanten and Venlo. This timber was transported over approximately 100 km, making it one of the earliest known examples of long-distance timber trade in the region. The scale of this enterprise suggests direct involvement of the Roman state and military. Transport was likely facilitated by barges along water routes [49].

Similarly, the provenance of two Roman river barges and a punt excavated near Utrecht reveals that they were constructed using oak from the Lower Scheldt region (present-day Flanders, Belgium), reinforcing the significance of timber procurement and trade networks in the Roman world [116].

3.2.11. Tree Species in Dendrochronology

The effectiveness of dendrochronology depends on the ability to crossdate tree-ring series. High levels of agreement among chronologies demonstrate the utility of species such as oak (Quercus spp., Fagaceae family), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L., Pinaceae family), juniper (Juniperus sp., Cupressaceae family), ash (Fraxinus sp., Oleaceae family), and hop-hornbeam (Ostrya sp., Betulaceae family). Oak and Scots pine are particularly prevalent in European dendrochronological studies, sourced from building materials, ship timbers, and even historical artworks like panel paintings and musical instruments [2,117].

In North America, bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva and Pinus aristata D.K.Bailey, from Pinaceae family), bald cypress (Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich., Taxodiaceae family), coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) Endl., Taxodiaceae family), Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex C.Lawson) both from Pinaceae family have provided valuable long-term chronologies [118]. Meanwhile, in the Southern Hemisphere, species such as kauri (Agathis australis (D. Don) Lindl., Araucariaceae family) in New Zealand and alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides (Molina) I. M. Johnst., Cupressaceae family) in South America have yielded extensive records of past climate and human interaction with the environment [58,119].

European oaks (Quercus robur L. and Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl.) from Fagaceae family have played a pivotal role in providing a continuous tree-ring chronology spanning nearly the entire Holocene, extending back to 8480 BC [8]. In Ireland and Scotland, research has primarily focused on oak species, though there has been increasing interest in multi-species reconstructions. However, challenges such as missing rings and fused stems have limited the inclusion of species like Taxus baccata L. (family Taxaceae) [120].

In New Zealand, dendrochronology has been applied to Agathis australis (kauri), with chronologies spanning from 1724 BC to AD 1998. These records are comparable to those from Tasmania and South America and provide significant insights into past climate, particularly regarding the El Niño-Southern Oscillation phenomenon [104]. More recently, tree-ring studies in New Zealand have expanded to include mataí (Prumnopitys taxifolia) and miro (Prumnopitys ferruginea) [108].

3.2.12. Dendroprovenancing and Historical Applications

Dendroprovenancing, the study of timber origin through tree-ring analysis, has traditionally been applied to oak in art-historical contexts but has since expanded to include a wider range of species and artifact types, particularly shipwrecks and architectural structures. The standard approach involves comparing site-specific tree-ring chronologies with broader networks to identify the probable source region of the wood. This methodology has proven invaluable in reconstructing trade routes, resource management practices, and the environmental impact of ancient civilizations.

As dendrochronological techniques continue to evolve, the potential for broader species inclusion and refined provenance analysis promises to enhance our understanding of past societies and their interactions with the environment.

4. Discussion

4.1. Existing Literature on Dendrochronology and Archaeology

The large number of articles published over time on this topic demonstrates, on the one hand, its scientific importance and, on the other hand, the interest of researchers in it. The review articles that are somewhat related to the studied topic refer to: Risk, Climatic Variability, and the Study of Southwestern Prehistory [100]; Oaks, tree-rings and wooden cultural heritage: a review of the main characteristics and applications of oak dendrochronology in Europe [8]; Locating the origins of wood resources: a review of dendroprovenancing [2]; Four levels of patterns in tree-rings: an archaeological approach to dendroecology [121]; Tree-rings, forest history and cultural heritage: current state and future prospects of dendroarchaeology in the Iberian Peninsula [67]; Tropical and subtropical dendrochronology [122].

The sustained increase in the number of publications over the last 15 years has also been observed in the bibliometric studies of other fields [123,124,125] and is due, as we have already mentioned, to the large number of researchers from various fields who have analyzed this topic, as well as to the growing number of scientific journals where they can publish their results.

Regarding the researchers who have published articles on this topic, we must highlight the multitude of disciplines they belong to: Archaeology, Forestry, Climatology, Ecology, Construction, Art and Culture, etc. In fact, we identified 24 research areas in which these publications can be classified, with the most representative being Archaeology, Anthropology, and Forestry.

While TLS and Links highlight connectivity and collaborative intensity within the research network, they should not be equated automatically with methodological impact or conservation relevance. For instance, several high-TLS teams such as the University of Arizona group and CNRS collaborations are not only central in the co-authorship network but have also introduced methodological advances—such as radiocarbon wiggle-matching for waterlogged timbers [29] and non-destructive X-ray micro-CT approaches [35]—that directly expanded the applicability of dendrochronology in archaeological conservation contexts. These cases suggest that high TLS often correlates with teams that push methodological frontiers, but this relationship requires careful case-by-case validation rather than being assumed across the board.

The large number of countries from which the authors of these publications come is also evidence of the widespread use of dendrochronology in archaeological studies. Archaeological sites, after all, are found in almost all countries (analyzing archaeological sites by country, we recorded 107 countries) [126].

The journals where such articles have been published can be grouped into two major categories: archaeology journals (Journal of Archaeological Science; International Journal of Nautical Archaeology; Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports; Holocene; Antiquity; Quaternary International) and dendrochronology journals (Dendrochronologia; Radiocarbon; Tree-Ring Research). The most common keywords also fall into these same categories.

4.2. Historical Data and Locations Related to Dendrochronology in History

Dendrochronological results in historical studies have been recorded for events dating from the most ancient times to the present. Thus, from our inventory of published articles on this topic, presented in Table 4, we find that the results obtained refer to some of the earliest historical periods, such as the Neolithic, Late Bronze Age, or Early Iron Age. They then continue through the 5th, 4th, 3rd, 2nd, and 1st millennia BC, through all the millennia of our era, and even into recent years (e.g., the 2019 study on the relocation and dating of the wood from Notre-Dame affected by fire). In fact, we could say that we have created, albeit on a small scale, an “Article Chronology” regarding the implications of dendrochronology in history.

From a geographical distribution perspective, archaeological research in which dendrochronology played a significant role has taken place across many continents and countries (France, Denmark, England, Germany, Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Albania, North Macedonia, Spain, Turkey, Russia, USA, Egypt, China, Mexico, Bolivia, Argentina, and Japan).

While dendrochronology has often been employed as one of the earliest methods for exploring past environments and human activities, it should not be regarded as the foundation of archaeobotany as a discipline. Archaeobotanical research has a long and independent trajectory, emerging from studies of charred seeds, fruits, phytoliths, pollen, and other plant macro- and micro-remains that developed without direct reliance on tree-ring analysis. Foundational work in archaeobotany—such as the pioneering studies [127,128,129,130], demonstrated how plant remains could illuminate subsistence strategies, crop domestication, and past environments independently of dendrochronology. It is only subsequently that dendrochronology began to intersect with archaeobotanical studies, for instance through the integration of wood charcoal analysis and the use of annual growth rings to explore woodland management, timber selection, and human–environment interactions. By acknowledging these distinct origins, we can more clearly situate dendrochronology as a complementary approach that later enriched the scope of archaeobotanical and environmental archaeology research, rather than as its basis.

4.3. Tree Species Utilized in Dendrochronology

Not all tree species are suitable for dendrochronological dating. To be effectively utilized in dendrochronology, tree species must meet several essential criteria. First, they must exhibit anatomically distinct growth rings, which allow for precise year-to-year differentiation. Second, the species should thrive across a broad ecological and geographical range to ensure wide applicability. Third, trees must be capable of achieving a (co-)dominant position in various woodland types, as dominant trees respond more consistently to regional climatic variations compared to suppressed trees, which are more influenced by localized forest dynamics. Fourth, the heartwood must be sufficiently durable to preserve the wood for long periods. Finally, the wood should have been extensively used historically for construction, artifacts, and other purposes, ensuring its availability in archaeological contexts [8].

To be crossdatable and useful in archaeological analyses, tree species must not only produce annual growth rings but also demonstrate “circuit uniformity,” meaning the rings should be consistent around the tree stem. Additionally, trees should have long lifespans—preferably spanning several centuries—and should have played a significant role in human activities, whether in construction, fuel, or artifacts. While numerous species worldwide have proven to be crossdatable, ongoing research continues to expand the list of viable species [131].

Arboreal archaeology integrates tree-ring data to examine past human exploitation of forest resources. By analyzing tree-ring patterns in archaeological contexts, researchers can determine how and when ancient societies harvested wood for construction, tool-making, fuel, and medicinal purposes. Beyond individual site analyses, dendroarchaeological sampling of these non-site resources significantly enhances our understanding of broader land use patterns and forest management strategies employed by past civilizations [132].

The most extensively used tree species in dendrochronology is oak (Quercus spp.). Deciduous oak trees began to expand and establish dominance in European forests approximately 6000 years ago [133,134]. Both major European oak species—Quercus robur and Quercus petraea—can live for several centuries, making them valuable for constructing long-term chronologies. Importantly, missing or discontinuous rings have not been indisputably reported for these species, making them particularly reliable for dendrochronological studies. European oak chronologies have provided some of the longest continuous records, with sequences extending back to 8480 BC. These records have been instrumental in reconstructing past climatic conditions and understanding historical human activity. In Ireland and Scotland, oak remains the dominant species in dendrochronological research, though recent studies have incorporated multiple species for broader reconstructions. However, species like Taxus baccata present challenges due to missing rings and fused stems, which complicate precise dating [120].

In North America, tree species such as bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva and Pinus aristata), bald cypress (Taxodium distichum), and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) have contributed valuable long-term datasets [118].

In the Southern Hemisphere, species like kauri (Agathis australis), mataí (Prumnopitys taxifolia) and miro (Prumnopitys ferruginea), from New Zealand and alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides) from South America have provided extensive dendrochronological records, crucial for studying past climate fluctuations and human interactions with the environment.

4.4. Species Identification and the Role of Wood Anatomy in Dendrochronological Studies

An indispensable prerequisite for any dendrochronological study is the accurate identification of wood species. Reliable taxonomic determination provides the foundation upon which tree-ring analyses rest, since growth patterns, ring structures, and ecological interpretations vary significantly between taxa. Wood anatomy plays a central role in this process, offering diagnostic features that enable archaeologists and archaeobotanists to distinguish among species with confidence [3,6]. Without secure identifications, chronological series cannot be meaningfully compared or securely dated, nor can the ecological and cultural implications of wood use be properly assessed. In archaeological materials, where preservation conditions often complicate analysis, the careful application of wood-anatomical methods ensures that dendrochronological results are both accurate and interpretable [7,8]. Thus, the integration of dendrochronology with wood anatomy is not merely methodological but a necessary step for reconstructing ancient practices of timber selection, forest exploitation, and human–environment interactions. The precision of chronological reconstructions and provenance studies fundamentally depends on correctly distinguishing among taxa, as ring patterns, growth dynamics, and ecological responses can vary markedly even among closely related species. Misidentification may result not only in failed cross-dating but also in flawed climatic and archaeological interpretations. For example, differences between Quercus robur and Quercus petraea, or between Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and larch (Larix decidua), can lead to divergent climatic signals and growth responses, with significant implications for historical reconstructions [133,134,135].

Wood anatomy provides the methodological foundation for this identification process. Anatomical characteristics such as vessel arrangement, ray structure, tracheid morphology, and resin canal patterns are crucial for distinguishing species in both archaeological and historical samples, where macroscopic features alone are often insufficient [2,100]. This dialogue between dendrochronology and wood anatomy ensures not only correct taxonomic assignment but also a deeper understanding of the dendrochronological signals themselves. For instance, the density and arrangement of latewood vessels in oak or the width of tracheids in conifers directly influence the sensitivity of ring-width series to climatic variables, thereby shaping the environmental signals embedded in the wood [8,136].

Moreover, integrating wood anatomy into dendroarchaeological research allows scholars to refine interpretations of past human activities. Anatomical analyses can reveal evidence of wood-selection practices (e.g., preference for dense, slow-grown heartwood for construction or resilient conifers for mining timbers), as well as technological choices related to durability and workability [6,105]. In this sense, the study of tree rings cannot be divorced from the study of wood anatomy, as both are required to fully reconstruct the interactions between humans, forests, and climatic conditions [137].

Future advances in dendrochronology therefore depend on strengthening this interdisciplinary dialogue. Expanding collaborations with wood anatomists, creating open-access anatomical reference databases, and integrating dendrochronology with advanced microscopic and imaging techniques will enhance the accuracy of species identification and the reliability of dendrochronological signals [2,5]. By doing so, archaeological and historical studies grounded in dendrochronology can achieve greater precision in dating, improved provenance determination, and richer insights into past human–environment interactions.

4.5. Locating the Origins of Wood Resources

Dendroprovenancing plays a crucial role in identifying the geographic origins of timber used in historical buildings, ships, and art-historical works, such as panel paintings, chests, and musical instruments. The sourcing of timber varied significantly depending on the status and purpose of the structure, as well as transportation capabilities.

In the case of relatively low-status wooden buildings, it has often been assumed that timber was sourced locally, typically within a few kilometers of the construction site. However, in regions where river systems facilitated easy transportation, even modest structures may have incorporated timber from further upstream. This can often be determined by comparing ring-width patterns with established regional or site-specific chronologies, as well as by analyzing relic rafting features visible on the timbers themselves [138]. Grander buildings, such as cathedrals and palaces, frequently sourced timber from ecclesiastical, monastic, or royal estates, with historical records documenting instances of timber being transported over hundreds of kilometers for prestigious construction projects.

The primary method for identifying the source area of timber is to match multi-timber ring-width site chronologies against regional or site-specific chronologies. The strongest statistical matches are often found with the closest geographical sites [2]. However, long-distance timber trade and transportation networks can complicate this process. For instance, dendrochronological studies have revealed that timber for significant medieval and early modern projects was frequently imported, even across national borders.

4.5.1. Timber Sourcing in Nautical Archaeology

Nautical archaeology particularly benefits from dendroprovenancing, as ships and boats often end up far from their place of construction. Many shipwreck studies have relied on dendrochronological techniques to establish the provenance of ship timbers. Research efforts have identified timber sources in various naval contexts [139,140,141,142]. By analyzing the tree-ring sequences of ship timbers and comparing them with reference chronologies, it is possible to pinpoint the origin of the wood, which in turn provides insights into shipbuilding traditions, trade networks, and resource management practices of past maritime civilizations.

Recent studies have demonstrated that shipbuilding timber was often sourced from regions far from the site of ship construction. For example, shipwrecks discovered along the Mediterranean coast frequently contain timber originating from the forests of the Eastern Mediterranean and Central Europe, reflecting the expansive nature of maritime trade networks. The ability to trace the origins of ship timbers helps reconstruct patterns of naval trade, economic influence, and state-controlled resource distribution.

Far from being an isolated line of inquiry, these results highlight how dendrochronology contributes to a broader understanding of human–environment interactions. Shipwreck timbers act as proxies not only for shipbuilding technology but also for past ecological exploitation, long-distance resource procurement, and the environmental pressures placed on particular forest regions. In this way, dendrochronology links maritime archaeology to wider questions of sustainability, political economy, and landscape use, demonstrating that timber sourcing for ships was embedded within dynamic socio-environmental systems rather than being a purely technical process.

4.5.2. Challenges and Future Directions in Dendroprovenancing

Despite significant advances, dendroprovenancing still presents methodological challenges. One key limitation is the availability of well-established and extensive regional chronologies. While oak has traditionally been the focus of dendrochronological studies, expanding master chronologies to include other species commonly used in historical construction and shipbuilding—such as pine, fir, and cedar—remains an ongoing research priority.

Warmer climate led to a longer growing season, with positive effect on ring growth. Higher genetic diversity (heterozygosity) proved to be associated both with the length of growing season (precocious bud burst and tree biomass of beech (Fagus sylvatica) [143]. Tardive (late flushing) sessile oaks (Quercus petraea) had lower wood density and higher density differences between sapwood and heartwood than precocious ones. Tardive oaks from geographically peripheral populations have a higher number of sapwood rings [135].

Moreover, the integration of dendrochronology with isotopic and genetic analysis promises to refine provenance determination even further. Isotopic analysis, for instance, can provide additional environmental signatures that complement tree-ring data, helping to differentiate between timber sources that exhibit similar growth patterns. Likewise, genetic studies of ancient wood samples may contribute to understanding timber movement by linking wood to specific forest populations.

The application of these methodologies across diverse archaeological contexts will continue to enhance our understanding of past societies and their interactions with natural resources. By refining dendroprovenancing techniques and incorporating interdisciplinary approaches, future research will offer even more precise insights into the exploitation, management, and trade of timber in ancient and historical periods.

4.6. Cultural Heritage and Dendrochronology

Dendrochronology has become an indispensable tool in the study of cultural heritage, with applications spanning archaeology, art history, and architectural conservation [2,8,109]. As an essential link between human societies and their environmental contexts, forest history reflects the evolving relationship between cultures and their natural surroundings, revealing patterns of development, cultural exchange, and socio-political influences over time. The impact of past civilizations on woodlands and their material heritage remains a critical area of research [67].

Recent scholarly efforts have increasingly moved beyond studying human and environmental systems as distinct entities to a more holistic view that integrates cultural and environmental dynamics. This shift emphasizes how human activities have influenced ecosystems and, conversely, how environmental changes and climatic variations have shaped social structures and behaviors. To fully understand these interactions, researchers must draw upon local and regional archives of climate data, secure well-preserved archaeological records that offer insights into social behaviors, and establish precise chronological frameworks that connect paleoenvironmental and archaeological evidence [144]. This multidisciplinary approach has illuminated the complex relationships between human societies and their environments throughout history.

Dendrochronology has played a crucial role in this discourse by refining our understanding of cultural transformations through high-resolution dating techniques. For instance, the study of Neolithic settlements in the circum-Alpine region has demonstrated how population shifts corresponded with cultural changes, providing a deeper comprehension of prehistoric societal adaptations [76]. Similarly, the analysis of wooden structures and murals among the Ancestral Pueblo people has revealed how artistic expression and architectural traditions contributed to cultural continuity and social cohesion over time [77]. In Eastern Tennessee, dendrochronological studies have advanced the understanding of Mississippian culture’s occupational history, despite persistent challenges such as wood preservation issues, short ring sequences, and the absence of long-term reference chronologies [78]. By integrating tree-ring data with paleoenvironmental records, researchers have further explored how climate variations influenced the social complexity of Mississippian societies in the Midwest and Southeastern United States, reinforcing the role of dendrochronology in reconstructing human–environment interactions.

Despite its numerous contributions, dendrochronology does have limitations that scholars in cultural heritage disciplines must recognize. These constraints include the necessity of well-preserved wood samples, regionally specific reference chronologies, and methodological considerations that can impact dating accuracy. Additionally, bridging the gap between dendrochronological research and its application in cultural heritage studies requires ongoing dialogue between specialists and practitioners. Improved communication can enhance the effectiveness of dendrochronological analyses in cultural heritage research through several key strategies: Collaborative Sampling Plans: Developing sampling strategies in collaboration with archaeologists, conservators, and heritage professionals ensures that data collection aligns with research objectives and preservation standards. Comprehensive Survey Reports: Providing detailed methodological overviews and interpretative guidance in survey reports allows non-specialists to better utilize dendrochronological findings. Expanding Research Applications: While chronological dating remains the primary focus, dendrochronology can also provide insights into past climate conditions, forest management practices, and the selection of timber resources, offering a broader historical perspective. Integrative Interpretation of Results: A holistic approach that synthesizes dendrochronological data with historical, archaeological, and paleoenvironmental sources fosters more robust and nuanced conclusions [136].

In conclusion, dendrochronology remains a vital asset in the study of cultural heritage, offering precise chronological frameworks that enhance our understanding of past societies and their interactions with the environment. By strengthening interdisciplinary collaboration—particularly between dendrochronologists, archaeologists, climatologists, ecologists, and historians—researchers can create more nuanced reconstructions of past human–environment interactions. For example, archaeological evidence contextualizes tree-ring data within cultural practices, while climatology provides models to interpret past environmental variability. Such collaborations enable a more integrated understanding of how ancient societies responded to ecological change.

4.7. Dendrochronology and the Archaeology of Mining: Insights from Tree-Rings

Mines are generally closed environments saturated with humidity and protected from light and temperature variations. As a result, wood preserved within mining structures decomposes at a much slower rate compared to open-air environments, particularly when submerged or encased in backfilled works. This unique preservation condition has enabled dendrochronologists to establish reliable cross-dated site chronologies, offering precise dating frameworks and insights into the phases of mining activity across various historical contexts [89].

Dendrochronological research on mining sites has demonstrated its capacity to reconstruct the timelines of resource extraction, technological development, and environmental impacts. The studies discussed in the results section highlight the widespread applicability of tree-ring dating, from the saltpeter extraction processes in 19th-century America to medieval and prehistoric mining operations in Europe. At sites such as Cagle Saltpetre Cave, the ability to date wooden leaching vats has shed light on intermittent mining and evolving technological practices. Similarly, research in the Northern Pyrenees has traced charcoal production intensity, providing a broader perspective on shifts in industrial demands and land use.

Beyond chronological reconstructions, dendrochronological analyses contribute to a broader understanding of historical forest management, wood selection, and technological choices made by past mining communities. Studies from the Massif des Écrins and Central Europe have revealed not only the timing of logging activities but also the seasonality of mining operations, indicating a strong relationship between mining and agropastoral cycles. The preference for coniferous species in timber use—evident in sites such as the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands and Lower Silesia—suggests considerations of mechanical properties, durability, and availability. The identification of late wood in samples further underscores the strategic timing of wood harvesting, often coinciding with the end of the growing season.

Another key aspect illuminated by dendrochronology is the technological evolution within mining practices. Tool marks on dated timbers provide evidence of cutting and shaping techniques employed by miners, reflecting the progression of woodworking tools over time. The use of minimally processed roundwood in the Hallstatt salt mines, for instance, contrasts with the more refined structural applications seen in later medieval and early modern mines. Similarly, the identification of stamped and ground ores alongside wooden ore-washing structures in Central Europe provides tangible evidence of the integration of timber into ore-processing infrastructure.

Moreover, dendrochronology offers crucial environmental insights by reconstructing past forest compositions and landscape transformations. The studies on medieval mining sites in the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands illustrate how mining and related activities influenced forest composition, with a predominance of fir and spruce in technical applications, while broadleaf species dominated surrounding landscapes. Such findings enhance our understanding of past resource management strategies and the long-term ecological consequences of mining activities.

In summary, dendrochronology serves as a multidisciplinary bridge, offering valuable contributions not only to the dating of mining activities but also to archaeological, historical, and environmental research. By examining preserved timbers within mining contexts, researchers can uncover details about mining seasonality, technological advancements, forest resource exploitation, and broader socio-economic shifts. The integration of dendrochronological data with archaeological and palynological evidence further enriches interpretations of mining sites, ensuring a more comprehensive reconstruction of past human–environment interactions.

4.8. Environmental Disruptions and Human Societies: Insights from Dendrochronology

Among various other fields, dendrochronology has been incorporated into climatology [136,145] and ecology [146,147], where it provides precise, annually resolved data. Rather than founding these disciplines, dendrochronology has offered novel methods and datasets that sharpen our understanding of past climate variability and ecological processes, thus complementing and extending the insights of these older fields.

Archaeological interest in understanding the interplay between humans and their environment, particularly in relation to climate change and ecological transformations, has deep historical roots. As early as the 1840s, Scandinavian researchers recognized the importance of environmental factors in shaping human societies [148]. Over the past seven decades, archaeologists have increasingly incorporated climate and ecology into their analyses, reflecting a growing awareness of the environment’s role in shaping historical trajectories.

Dendroecology provides a powerful means of reconstructing past environmental conditions and their impacts on human societies. By analyzing tree-ring width variations, researchers can detect fluctuations in climate, extreme weather events, and ecological shifts [149,150,151,152]. These insights complement archaeological and historical records, enabling a more comprehensive understanding of the relationships between environmental disruptions and societal responses [121]. To strengthen this perspective, it is important to emphasize that such reconstructions depend on both the correct identification of tree species and the interpretation of their anatomical signals. Climatic sensitivity varies not only across regions but also across species, and even across populations of the same species. Thus, the integration of wood anatomy into dendroecological studies ensures that observed growth patterns are properly attributed to species-specific physiological responses rather than misinterpreted as universal climatic signals.

Archaeologists and geographers have long been interested in understanding the relative importance of environment in determining the course of history [153]. One of the most striking examples of environmental disruptions influencing human history is the role of natural disasters. Climate variability, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and extreme weather events have repeatedly disrupted societies, sometimes precipitating cultural transformations or even societal collapses.

Some geo-hazards (earthquakes, mountain floods, volcanic eruptions) could lead to the abandonment of ancient settlements and also can cause societal collapse [154,155,156]. The Santorini eruption, for instance, had profound consequences for civilizations across the Eastern Mediterranean, with dendrochronological data contributing to the ongoing debate regarding its exact date and impact [73]. Similarly, the A.D. 1257 eruption of Samalas in Indonesia triggered climatic disruptions on a global scale, reinforcing the significance of volcanic activity in shaping environmental history [74].

Droughts, in particular, have been linked to the decline of major civilizations [157,158,159]. Tree-ring studies from the Chesapeake region provide strong evidence of severe droughts during the early years of the Jamestown colony, correlating with historical accounts of famine, poor water quality, and high mortality rates [69]. Likewise, dendrochronological analysis of tree rings from North America has confirmed the occurrence of prolonged droughts, including the Great Drought of the late 13th century, which coincided with the decline of the Ancestral Puebloans in the Colorado Plateau and may have played a role in the broader collapse of Mesoamerican civilizations during the Terminal Classic Period [75].

Dendrochronological evidence also reveals the intricate relationship between humans and fire regimes, so is indicated in studies published by Pellatt et al., 2014; Zin et al., 2015; Harley et al., 2018; Manton et al., 2022 [160,161,162,163].

Tree-ring research has emerged as a crucial tool for reconstructing past environmental conditions and their impacts on human societies. Whether through documenting climate-induced societal collapses, revealing long-term land management strategies, or tracing the historical consequences of major disasters, dendrochronology provides essential data for understanding human–environment interactions. These insights highlight the necessity of integrating ecological and archaeological perspectives to develop a more nuanced appreciation of past resilience and vulnerability. As climate change continues to present multiple challenges [164,165], global challenges, historical and archaeological records offer valuable lessons for navigating future environmental uncertainties.

4.9. Limitations of This Review

Despite the significant contributions of dendrochronology to archaeology, several gaps and limitations remain that constrain its broader application and effectiveness: Dependence on established chronologies: the effectiveness of dendrochronology relies on the availability of long, well-established regional reference chronologies. In regions where such datasets are incomplete or absent, the method’s accuracy in dating and provenance determination is significantly reduced. Integration with other dating methods: although dendrochronology provides precise absolute dating, it must often be combined with radiocarbon dating or other techniques to establish comprehensive chronological frameworks. The inconsistencies between these methods can sometimes lead to dating discrepancies that require further refinement. Underrepresentation in interdisciplinary research: while dendrochronology has clear implications for archaeology, art history, and environmental science, interdisciplinary collaboration remains underdeveloped. Expanding research networks and integrating dendrochronology with advanced technologies like isotopic analysis and genetic tracing could enhance its potential. Addressing these limitations requires the development of new non-invasive techniques, expansion of regional chronologies, and interdisciplinary collaboration to improve the accuracy and applicability of dendrochronology in archaeology.

Finally, addressing these limitations also requires a closer dialogue between dendrochronology, wood anatomy, and paleoecology. By combining the taxonomic precision offered by anatomical analysis with the temporal resolution of dendrochronology, researchers can move beyond descriptive accounts toward more robust interpretations of past environmental disruptions and their consequences for human societies.

5. Conclusions

• Dendrochronology has proven to be an invaluable tool in archaeological research, offering precise dating methods and insights into past human–environment interactions. By analyzing tree-ring data, researchers can reconstruct climatic conditions, determine the provenance of wooden artifacts, and enhance our understanding of ancient construction techniques, trade networks, and cultural practices. This study highlights the increasing significance of dendroarchaeology in multiple disciplines, including archaeology, anthropology, art history, and environmental science.
• The bibliometric analysis conducted in this study reveals a growing interest in dendrochronological research over the past 15 years, reflecting advancements in methodology and interdisciplinary collaboration. However, several challenges remain, including the need for expanded regional reference chronologies, the development of non-destructive sampling techniques, and improved integration with other scientific dating methods such as radiocarbon and isotopic analysis. Addressing these limitations will enhance the accuracy and applicability of dendrochronology in archaeological studies.
• Future research should focus on expanding dendroarchaeological investigations in regions with limited chronological datasets, particularly in tropical and arid environments where tree-ring growth is less distinct. Additionally, integrating emerging technologies such as high-resolution imaging and geochemical analysis will allow for more refined provenance studies and environmental reconstructions. By strengthening interdisciplinary collaboration and refining analytical techniques, dendrochronology will continue to play a critical role in shaping our understanding of ancient civilizations. This study underscores the necessity of preserving and analyzing wooden archaeological materials with precision, ensuring that dendrochronological research remains a cornerstone in the broader field of cultural heritage studies.
• A key limitation of this study concerns the linguistic scope of the bibliometric search. Although our inclusion criteria required English-language titles and abstracts for standardization and comparability, we did include some publications whose full texts were written in other languages but accompanied by English abstracts within the databases. Thus, non-English research was partially represented in our analysis. However, we acknowledge that valuable studies without English metadata, especially those published in languages such as German, French, Italian, Spanish, or Russian, may have been excluded. This linguistic bias reflects broader asymmetries in global scientific visibility and should be addressed in future research. Expanding future bibliometric analyses to include multilingual databases (e.g., Scielo) and regional repositories will provide a more comprehensive and inclusive overview of dendroarchaeological scholarship worldwide.