Museums and Urban Sustainability: A Comparative Study of Athens and Singapore

Abstract

Museums play a crucial role in sustainable urban regeneration by maintaining and promoting cultural identity, fostering education, enhancing economic growth, among other factors. The purpose of this study is to scrutinize the dynamic connection between the role of museums and the viable development of cities as well as the salience of this interdependence. Using a qualitative approach, case study and comparative analysis, we examine social, economic, cultural, technological, and environmental criteria as a framework, aiming to elucidate and highlight the significance of implementing cultural policies for the sustainable development of cities in contemporary globalized societies. The correlation under investigation is revealed by evaluating and comparing Athens and Singapore based on the landmark museum of each city. The main argument, derived from the analysis, is that traditional practices function as custodians of heritage, operating as interdisciplinary platforms that foster innovation, inclusivity, and cultural diplomacy. Despite differences in governance and orientation, both case studies reveal how tailored cultural policies can utilize the assets of each institution to support cohesive urban identities and foster cross-cultural engagement.

1. Introduction

The role of culture in the sustainable development of cities is undisputed, which is why Europe is oriented towards cultural tourism as a means of fostering tourism development and differentiating it as a competitive global product. Culture has a profound impact on the formation of individual identity and “culture uniqueness” of a given society [1,2,3,4]. The trend towards qualitative over quantitative tourism and the need for immediate funding in the cultural sector make culture an attractive form of tourism for both large urban centers and regional entities [5]. In modern economies, cultural institutions play a pivotal role in the flourishing of the knowledge society and the achievement of economic growth and stability. Especially since the 1980s, globally, cities aim to rebuild their physical and socio-economic qualities through culture, incorporating it into competitive national and international development models [6,7,8,9]. The evaluation of “cultural-economic” goods takes place in a multidimensional socio-economic framework [10]. In social terms, the main benefits are the social inclusion of diverse groups, the promotion of social unity, the development of diversity, the encouragement of productivity and originality, and finally, the enhancement of national cultural identity. From an economic perspective, cultural industries have a significant impact on the national GDP, gross added value, and the reduction in unemployment. At the same time, they contribute to improving the balance of payments, fostering competitiveness, and attracting businesses and investors [11]. To this effort of cities to foster their regeneration or reconstruction, museums were a critical component of culture to the development of places [9,12,13].

In Asia, cultural tourism serves as a catalyst for economic transformation in both rural and urban areas, particularly in countries such as Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, and Singapore [14]. For example, in the rural areas of Southeast Asia, Buddhist heritage offers a cultural distinctiveness element that contributes to sustainable development [15]. In urban contexts, museums and theme parks in major Asian cities such as Tokyo, Osaka, Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Beijing have attracted more the 1186 billion visitors over the past decade, significantly contributing to local economic growth [16]. Museums are a crucial part of Asia’s cultural heritage, and their image often affects visitors’ positive emotions, behavioral intentions, and overall satisfaction [17]. Additionally, tourism-related foreign direct investment in cultural tourism has helped promote income equality between residents in rural and urban cultural sites [18]. However, while cultural heritage tourism brings positive economic impacts, it can also generate negative issues. For instance, the increased number of visitors to the ancient town Hoi in Vietnam following its designation as a UNESCO World Heritage Site has affected the social sustainability of local community [19].

The role of cultural tourism in urban development and sustainability has been widely explored in the literature [20,21,22]. For instance, Kasemsarn et al. [20] examined the complex relationships between cultural-creative tourism, urban branding, youth engagement and sustainability. Farhan et al. [22] explored how modern urban development approaches affect the historic and architectural character of cities within the framework of sustainable development. Wang et al. [18] examined ecological protection, regional economic growth, and traditional cultural support as key elements in urban development initiatives. Aldossary et al. [21] proposed a cultural-driven urban regeneration framework aimed at helping cities not only preserve their historic sited but improve local economic performance, cultural sustainability and community participation.

However, the role of museum within cultural tourism and their effect on urban development and regeneration across different contexts remains underexplored. Based on our main hypothesis regarding the major importance of culture in a city’s multidimensional development, this paper addresses this research gap by examining the relationship between museums and urban development. The present study focuses on two museums case studies: the Acropolis Museum in Athens and the Art Science Museum in Singapore. It employs a qualitative approach, including case study and comparative analysis, to address the following research questions: RQ1: In which ways do museums contribute to cultural, social, and economic urban development? RQ2: What is the role of museums in enhancing the cultural identity of cities? RQ3: How can museums affect the tourism and economic development of cities? RQ4: How is the experience of Athens and Singapore used as an example to illustrate the correlation between culture and urban development? The added value of the present study lies in providing useful insights into the role of museums in urban development and regeneration within both European and Asian contexts.

The structure of the rest of the paper is as follows: Section 2 presents the literature review, while Section 3 analyses the methodologies used. Section 4 presents the case studies and Section 5 the comparative analysis results. Section 6 provides answers to research questions and Section 7 discuss the results. Finally, Section 7 concludes.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Culture and Urban Sustainable Development

Building on the dynamic role of culture in urban development and renewal, three fundamental models are commonly referred in the literature [23]. The first is the “culture-led regeneration” model, which positions cultural activities (including public art, festival and creative industries) as the main forces of urban regeneration [24]. The second model, “cultural generation”, adopts a border, policy-oriented approach by embedding culture into long-term urban planning strategies. Initially, the third model, “culture and regeneration”, takes a more limited scope, using cultural projects to complement other regeneration efforts, without prioritizing culture. While these models differ in emphasis and application, it is widely acknowledged that culture enhances urban environments. When cultural strategies are effectively implemented, they can support multiculturalism, strengthen local identity and participation, and generate significant economic and social impact, including increased tourism arrivals, employment opportunities and social inclusion [25,26,27].

In Europe, the Maastricht Treaty (Article 87) [28], also known as the Treaty on European Union, explicitly acknowledges culture as a cornerstone of interdisciplinary development. It mandates the protection of member states’ cultural heritage, encourages intergovernmental collaboration in cultural dissemination, and ensures enhanced public accessibility to cultural resources. Directly linked to this treaty is the Creative Europe Program, which has been part of the EU agenda since 2014. This program funds cultural institutions and supports museums by facilitating cross-border exhibitions, activities, and research. A particular focus is placed on exhibitions promoting public participation, with special emphasis on the inclusion of social minorities [27]. Among the most emblematic examples of the role of museum in urban regeneration and sustainability is the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao. Often referred as a “superstar museum”, the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao has not only attracted the interest of visitors to the city but has also garnered significant attention across global social networks, contributing to a substantial increase in cultural tourism [29]. Its impact, however, extends beyond increased tourism flows and fiscal return. The museum has played a meaningful role in fostering the development of the local street art scene, and in strengthening public support for cultural initiatives [30].

In the Asian context, cultural tourism is among the major motivational factors for both domestic and international tourists. The growth of the cultural tourism sector has effectively stimulated through public investments in local heritage that are integrated with environmentally sustainable and green practices [31]. Cultural tourism has been increasingly employed as a strategic tool for creating sustainable competitive advantage in regional development [32]. Tourist motivations are heterogeneous and vary based on the sociodemographic profile of visitors. Younger travelers (under 25 years old age) are likely to be attracted by the living culture expressions of Asian society. In contrast, travelers aged 25 to 60 tend to be attracted by the artistic traditional and tangible cultural heritage, while those over 60 years old demonstrate a preference for visiting heritage sites [33]. In relation to museums, their perceived image plays a crucial role in shaping visitors’ emotional responses. Xu et al. [17] identify that positive emotional outcomes are affected primarily by the quality of exhibits, the facilities and the environment of the museums. Conversely, negative emotional responses are associated with factors such as staff service, traffic, accessibility. Furthermore, Cheng et al. [34] argued that the perceived authenticity of museums affects indirectly the loyalty behavior of visitors, mediated by their overall satisfaction and overall destination image. It can be concluded that the strategically management of cultural institutions is the Asian context is primary oriented toward meeting diverse visitor expectations, enhancing emotional engagement, and strengthening destination image to support the long-term sustainability in cultural tourism rather than serving as a direct tool for urban renewal.

Despite the predominant view that culture positively influences urban development, some scholars challenge this stance. Miles [35] questions the extent to which culture alone can drive urban regeneration, arguing that cities cannot rely solely on cultural assets for sustainable development. Concerns have also been raised about the rapid adoption of cultural policies by policymakers, with calls for more rigorous assessment criteria to evaluate culture’s impact on local communities [36,37]. These critiques encourage critical reflection, fostering deeper discussions and the potential adoption of more refined methodologies in urban cultural policy. While no universally accepted definition of sustainability exists, Ben-Eli [38] offers a comprehensive interpretation: “A dynamic equilibrium in the process of interaction between a population and the carrying capacity of its environment such that the population develops to express its full potential without producing irreversible adverse effects on the carrying capacity of the environment upon which it depends”.

Focusing on cultural sustainability has gained attention the last 20 years, driven by the rapid transformations threatening cultural heritage, whether due to natural disasters or a lack of preservation knowledge [39,40,41]. Given that culture is an integral component of the urban ecosystem and contributes to long-term economic growth, its protection must be a priority [42,43]. The New Athens Charter [44] emphasizes the need to safeguard cultural identity, promote cultural diversity, and preserve a vibrant creative sector as fundamental elements of sustainable urban development.

2.2. Define the Role of Museums

The concept of a museum is complex and has evolved over time, lacking a universally accepted definition. Its nature varies across geographical locations and historical periods, with numerous definitions emerging by the 1970s [45]. The International Council of Museums (ICOM) [46] defines a museum as “a not-for-profit, permanent institution in the service of society that researches, collects, conserves, interprets and exhibits tangible and intangible heritage. Open to the public, accessible and inclusive, museums foster diversity and sustainability. They operate and communicate ethically, professionally and with the participation of communities, offering varied experiences for education, enjoyment, reflection and knowledge sharing.” Despite variations in definition, the functions of museums—conservation, research, and communication—remain fundamental [47], distinguishing them from other institutions while preserving and displaying cultural heritage [48,49].

Historically, the term “museum” dates back to antiquity, originally referring to temples dedicated to the nine Muses. During the Roman era, it became a space for philosophical discourse, and by the 18th century, it had evolved to signify both collections of exhibits and the buildings housing them. The Renaissance and Enlightenment laid the foundation for modern museums, which in the 19th century were primarily seen as institutions for public education and cultural refinement [50,51]. By the late 20th century, museums underwent transformations to cater to diverse audiences, including individuals with unique communication and learning abilities [52]. Today, museums are increasingly specialized, as seen in Amsterdam’s Sex Museum and Cannabis Museum, London’s Museum of Moving Image [53,54], the Peking Duck Museum in Beijing [55], and the Earthquake Museum in Taiwan [56].

In our days, museums can be categorized as “traditional,” “modern,” and “postmodern” [57]. Traditional museums prioritize their exhibits over visitor engagement, often focusing on national history through material artifacts, while some also present narratives beyond national contexts. Modern museums, in contrast, embrace their social role, integrating educational and recreational elements to provide experiential learning. Postmodern museums utilize advanced technology to create multidimensional experiences that cater to both individual and collective needs [58]. As dynamic institutions, museums continuously adapt to economic, sociopolitical, and technological developments [59]. Weil [48] aptly argues that museums must balance the preservation of exhibits with visitor engagement to remain relevant. More than just cultural spaces, museums contribute to economic and urban development, attracting tourism, investment, and local participation, playing a pivotal role in urban revitalization when integrated into strategic policies [13].

Policymakers increasingly recognize museums as key drivers of economic growth, incorporating them into strategies for urban and regional development [60]. Museums generate both direct and indirect economic benefits, including revenue from ticket sales, shops, and restaurants, as well as visitor expenditures on transportation, accommodation, and entertainment [60]. Beyond tourism, museums stimulate local economies by creating jobs and attracting businesses and residents [61]. Their broader economic significance extends to infrastructure improvements and cultural investments that enhance urban appeal [62]. Lehman [63] emphasizes that museums, with their cultural character, contribute significantly to the economy, while underdeveloped regions often use them as catalysts for transformation, increasing investment and community engagement.

Beyond their economic impact, museums play a crucial role in social development by fostering cultural inclusion, education, and civic engagement. In the UK, financial pressures on cultural institutions have intensified the need for museums to demonstrate their social value [37]. One key aspect of this role is organizing cultural activities that promote inclusivity and reduce societal tensions. Museums also contribute to education through collaborations with academic institutions, enhancing creativity and fostering innovation [64,65]. They cultivate local pride, encouraging civic participation and a sense of belonging. Furthermore, museums increasingly serve as platforms for implementing social policies aimed at addressing exclusion [66]. By broadening their audiences and adapting their programs, museums improve quality of life while strengthening public engagement with cultural heritage [67,68].

The Network of European Museum Organizations (NEMO) highlights some findings from 650 museums across 41 countries during the COVID-19 pandemic [69]. The study revealed that many museums swiftly adapted to lockdowns by offering digital content and virtual experiences, ensuring continued audience engagement while documenting the pandemic’s impact on the sector. This adaptability underscores the significance of museums as resilient and responsive institutions, capable of addressing contemporary societal challenges.

In conclusion, museums are far more than repositories of cultural heritage; they are dynamic institutions that shape and reflect the values of society. They serve as economic stimulants, social unifies, and educational platforms, continuously evolving to meet the changing needs of the communities they serve. Whether through their historical functions, their role in urban development, or their increasing digital presence, museums remain essential components of cultural and economic ecosystems, ensuring their continued relevance in an ever-evolving world.

Museums play a crucial role in cultural sustainability by safeguarding and disseminating both tangible and intangible heritage. Their mission inherently aligns with sustainability principles, as they continuously adapt to evolving societal contexts while ensuring inclusivity and knowledge transmission to future generations [70,71]. Consequently, museums not only serve as custodians of the past but also as dynamic institutions that shape sustainable cultural policies for the future.

There are several successful examples of museums’ contribution to urban sustainable development. For instance, Errichiello and Micera [72], analyze the case of MuseoTorino in Italy in order to investigate its relationship with city’s innovative smart strategy, while, Lazzeretti and Capone [73] analyze the Museum of Natural History in Florence, Italy, by focusing on the impacts of cultural events as a way to revitalize scientific knowledge and education in the city and the wider area. In addition, Torre and Rajabi [74] analyze the multiple roles of cultural heritage on urban sustainable process and the implementation of planning strategies, using as case studies the St. James’s Church and the Cathedral Museum in Como, Italy. Two decades ago Page [75] examines how the redesign of National Museum of New Zealand, in Wellington had has a significant impact on the redevelopment of city’s waterfront and the promotion of cultural heritage, while Wang and Chiou [76] examines sustainable development of environmental education provided by museums by using as a case study Tamsui Historical Museum in Taiwan. Furthermore, Sutter et al. [77] discuss community-based culture and heritage initiatives by reflecting on the development of ecomuseums in Canada and the USA, by taking as case studies the Haute-Beauce Ecomuseum in Québec and the Ak-Chin Him Dak Ecomuseum in Arizona. From his point of view, Orman [78] explores the concepts of architecture and sustainable development and their integration in the design and management of modern museums by providing a comparative analysis between the Qatar National Museum and the Grand Egyptian Museum, while, Malaga and Brown [79] examine, museums contribution for community development achievement by using as case studies four archeological museums in Northern Peru.

3. Methodology

3.1. Selection of the Case Studies

The selection of the Acropolis Museum in Athens and the Art Science Museum in Singapore was purposeful. Selection was guided by four key criteria: Cultural and Historical Salience, Innovative and Modern Approaches, Sustainability and Community Engagement, and Geographic Diversity. Greece, specifically Athens, is considered as the foundation of Western civilization and offers a rich archeological and cultural heritage context to explore. In addition, the modern Acropolis Museum has been globally recognized as successful paradigm of how the modern architecture can embrace historical preservation [80]. On the other hand, the Art Science Museum in Singapore reflects the modern and dynamic character of museums operating within a highly competitive, globalizing context. Studying these two museums together offers researchers a significant contrast on how museums and their role to urban sustainability are approached. While both museums align with broader trends in cultural tourism and urban development, they also highlight key differences. More particular between a museum rooted in deep antiquity and one shaped by more contemporary and modern approach. Moreover, using two museums that represent Western and Eastern cultural contexts as case studies ensures geographic diversity and enables analysis across different socio-economic environments. As Van der Borg [81] highlights, “national capitals tend to attract the highest percentages of cultural tourists—a trend that will be explored further through the examination of each selected city”.

3.2. Case Study and Comparative Analysis

Case studies can involve either single or multiple cases and multiple levels of analysis (qualitative (e.g., words), quantitative (numbers), or both [82,83]. It involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular individual, group, event, organization, or phenomenon. Initially, the present analysis uses case studies of Acropolis Museum, in Athens and the Art Science Museum, in Singapore. The primary aim of a case study is to understand and explore complex issues within their real-life context. In case studies, researchers gather detailed information through various data collection methods such as interviews, observations, surveys, documents, and archival records [84]. In addition, comparative study is applied. Comparative case studies are conducted over time and emphasize comparisons within and across contexts. They may be chosen when it is not feasible to conduct an experimental design and/or when there is a need to understand and explain how context characteristics affect the success of program or policy initiatives. Comparative case studies involve the analysis and synthesis of similarities, differences, and patterns in two or more cases that share a common focus or objective. To be able to do this well, the specific characteristics of each case should be described in depth at the beginning of the study. The rationale for selecting specific cases is directly linked to the key evaluation questions (KEQs) and therefore to what needs to be explored [85,86].

There are several previous studies of implementing comparative analysis in museums. For instance, De Miguel Molina et al. [87] analyze innovation in the processes undertaken by museums in the conservation and restoration of artworks. Information from 90 conservation and restoration departments from museums in 43 countries was analyzed using qualitative comparative analysis. Kabassi [88] presents an evaluation experiment that uses a combination of two multi-criteria decision-making theories, namely the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and the fuzzy technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution. Carbone et al. [89] propose a definition of quality in cultural heritage attractions management based on dimensions such as the capacity of preserving the cultural assets, the ability to effectively communicate their significance, the quality of commodification for visitor use, and the ability to boost intercultural competence and promote intercultural dialog. Booth et al. [90] investigate how, in forming their policy towards open data (OD), art museums interact with the OD ecosystems they are part of, comprising internal and external components such as cultural policy, legal frameworks, user groups and economic conditions and incentives. Zhao et al. [91] investigated the relationship between urban accessibility of museums in the urban spaces of Tokyo and Seoul within limited travel distances. Similarities and differences were identified in the museum accessibility between the two cities. Finally, Kolios [92] examines the economic strategies which two private museums of Meteora, the Hellenic Culture Museum and the Natural History Museum of Meteora and Mushroom Museum implement, so as to grasp the economic strategies that private museums in Greece adopt.

In the present study, the role of museums in urban sustainability is examined multidimensionally. Their contribution to social sustainability is assessed by observing factors such as accessibility and available amenities facilities, education orientated programs, and the use of digital innovation. Additionally, the role of selected museums in environmental sustainability is explored by examining their environmentally oriented philosophies, architectural design and institutional identity.

4. The Case Studies in Brief

4.1. Athens—Introduction to the Acropolis Museum

Athens, the capital of Greece, serves as a major global tourist destination, having been designated as the first European Capital of Culture in 1985 with the inception of the institution. With a permanent population of 3,814,065 according to the 2021 census, Athens ranks as the eighth-largest urban center in the European Union.

The archeological museum under examination is the New Acropolis Museum (NAM) [Figure 1], a public non-profit organization that is sustained, to the extent possible, by its own revenues. Since its inauguration, the museum has housed a publicly accessible permanent collection comprising the archeological findings from excavations in the broader area of the Parthenon and the Acropolis.

A brief historical review reveals that the first small museum dedicated to the Acropolis’ findings was constructed solely for their safe preservation. However, the need for a larger museum space that could facilitate not only the exhibition but also the conservation and protection of artifacts led to four competitions for the realization of the New Acropolis Museum. The NAM safeguards ancient remnants by maintaining optimal environmental conditions and providing protection against global challenges like pollution and antiquities trafficking [94,95]. Notably, the Acropolis Museum serves as a model of integrated monument conservation, fully aligned with the regulations set forth by European Conventions [96]. With its dedication to promoting ancient Greek heritage, celebrating Greece’s most glorious eras, and reinforcing the country’s cultural identity while addressing issues such as the “Parthenon Marbles,” the NAM has rightfully been characterized not only as a specialized archeological museum but also as an art museum due to the overall quality of the experience it provides [95,97]. The NAM stands as a prime example of Greece’s cultural restoration and the reestablishment of its international prestige [98].

4.1.1. The Museum as a Social Agent

Accessibility and Amenities

The museum serves an essential social function by prioritizing accessibility. It is equipped with ramps, elevators, and accessible restrooms to facilitate movement for individuals with disabilities, while wheelchairs are available upon request. Additionally, a Braille guide in both Greek and English is provided, and guide-dogs are permitted. Families benefit from stroller loans, a dedicated parents’ room, and interactive activities such as family trails and a children’s area with digital games. Visitors can deepen their understanding of the collections through expert-led gallery talks and audio guides providing detailed explanations of the exhibits. The Reading Lounge offers a quiet study room, featuring a selection of books, free Wi-Fi, and a view of the Karyatids. Furthermore, the Multimedia Center enhances the experience through interactive storytelling, offering valuable insights into the historical and cultural heritage of the Acropolis. Beyond its educational mission, the museum is committed to conservation. A striking example is the laser cleaning of the Karyatids, conducted openly before the public in collaboration with the Institute of Technology and Research of Crete, deepening visitors’ appreciation for preservation [99].

Seminars and Programs

Beyond exhibitions, NAM offers a range of educational programs and activities tailored for school students. These initiatives aim to foster a deeper connection between students and ancient Greek civilization through direct engagement with museum exhibits. It supports educators through seminars introducing guided tours and learning activities. The Parthenon Sculpture program includes a short film on the Parthenon’s decoration, followed by a guided visit with an educational booklet. Additionally, archeologists host public presentations in Greek and English on topics such as Aquatic Routes, Daily Life in Ancient Athens, The Parthenon and Byron and more. Participation is free, with limited tickets available on a first-come, first-served basis. Independent school visits accommodate up to 50 students per hour, with free admission for students under 18 and their educators. A booking system ensures smooth entry for school groups. The museum’s resources include the Parthenon Sculpture booklet, specialized publications, museum kits, and virtual presentations of the Parthenon frieze. Visitors enjoy high-quality experience with a ground-floor café, a second-floor restaurant with panoramic Acropolis view, a temporary exhibition gallery, an auditorium, a virtual reality theater, and two museum shops [99].

Environmental Orientation

Aligned with ecotourism and the green movement, NAM operates recycling and waste reduction programs, utilizing special collectors for each recyclable material [100]. Its eco-friendly architecture, built with energy-sustainable materials is designed to harness the abundant Greek sunlight through a carefully planned orientation in relation to the horizon, resulting in low energy consumption. The museum exemplifies the harmonious balance between nature, culture, location, and life [101].

Digital Innovation

Innovative technologies, both physical and digital, are gradually transforming traditional tourist destinations into smart ones [102], increasing their attractiveness—as seen in Athens. The role of the Digital Acropolis Museum is complementary, aiming to transcend geographical boundaries and provide access to individuals with mobility and cognitive disabilities, rather than substituting physical experience [103]. As in any modern institution, visitors access information through social media (Facebook, Twitter, Google, etc.). Part of the “Creation of a Digital Acropolis Museum” initiative is the museum’s Google Arts & Culture page, allowing virtual visitors to explore artifacts in 3D using virtual reality (VR) [104]. Additionally, its interactive website, available in six languages including Greek, provides extensive information. A dedicated children’s section, available in Greek and English [105], introduces young audiences to the museum through videos and creative activities. Discreetly placed touch-screen panels offer information next to exhibits, while state-of-the-art audio guides are available in multiple languages [106]. Technology also narrates the “removal” of the Parthenon marbles, their fragmentation, and the significance of their reunification. These innovations enhance Athens’ competitiveness and establish the NAM as a landmark of Greek cultural heritage [103].

Architectural Salience and Identity

Filippopoulou [95] argues that Athens embodies both antiquity and modernity, with the Acropolis serving as its defining landmark—an edifice that has stood for over 2500 years. According to her, the Acropolis was originally erected as a place of worship so shaped by the interplay of its geographical location and human intervention, has played a pivotal role in forming a globally renowned and enduring cultural landscape. This landscape remains inextricably linked to the ideals of democracy, philosophy, and the arts of classical antiquity. To this day, it remains known among locals as the “Sacred Rock of the Acropolis,” while since 1987, its ancient temples have been recognized by UNESCO as “the greatest architectural and artistic complex bequeathed by Greek Antiquity to the world” and “universal symbols of the classical spirit and civilization [107]. What sets NAM apart from other European museums is its unique location within the very geographical and cultural context where its artifacts originally belonged [97].

Beyond symbolizing Greek cultural identity, the Acropolis Museum exemplifies architectural excellence, garnering international recognition for its cultural, architectural, and touristic significance [108]. The museum’s design underwent four competitions, underscoring the importance of selecting an optimal location. The final site enhances the museum’s prestige through its integration with Athens’ archeological sites and the visual-emotional connection it fosters between exhibits and their historic surroundings [95,109]. As visitors navigate the museum’s floors, they enter an exhibition space constructed entirely of glass, where natural light bathes the archeological artifacts, evoking a sense of immersion in ancient Athenian life as part of the narrative of the artifacts’ history [108]. The top-floor gallery offers a stunning 360^ο panoramic view of the Acropolis and Athens [96] [Figure 2].

4.2. Singapore

Introduction to the ArtScience Museum

The city of Singapore serves as the capital of the eponymous country in Southeast Asia. It is considered one of the region’s major economic and commercial hubs, which explains the continuous development of architecturally innovative infrastructure aligned with the needs of its rapidly growing economy [111]. According to official government statistical reports, Singapore’s population in July 2024 was estimated at 6,036,900 residents [112].

The ArtScience Museum is part of the Marina Bay Sands complex in Singapore, along with a hotel, an exhibition and a convention center with shopping centers and two theaters [111] [Figure 3]. Inaugurated on 19 February 2011, it is the largest privately owned museum in Singapore and the first of its kind to challenge the boundaries between art, science, and technology, with a forward-looking orientation [113]. Its primary objective is to highlight the common ground between art and science, emphasizing their pivotal role in shaping human development [111]. In a unique way, it merges two theoretically opposing worlds, forming a distinctive institution in practice [113]—a fact that is reflected both in its name and in its architecture, which symbolically express this synthesis [114]. The museum is founded on the harmonious convergence of art, science, and technology, aiming to highlight the creative coexistence of artistic imagination, technological innovation, and scientific inquiry [115,116].

4.3. The Museum as a Social Agent

4.3.1. Accessibility and Amenities

The ArtScience Museum is committed to providing an inclusive and comfortable experience for all visitors. It offers free Wi-Fi, luggage storage, and Lost & Found services. The museum is fully accessible, featuring automated doors, wheelchair-friendly pathways, lifts, and accessible restrooms on every floor. Manual wheelchairs and service animals are welcome. Family-friendly amenities include baby changing rooms, child-friendly toilets, and stroller parking, as strollers are restricted in some exhibitions for safety. Water cooler stations are available, and visitors can use the Oculus entrance during rain. Concession tickets are offered for people with disabilities and their caregivers, reflecting the museum’s dedication to accessibility and visitor well-being [118].

4.3.2. Environmental and Sustainability Orientation

The ArtScience Museum in Singapore is the first in the Asia-Pacific region to receive global recognition for its achievements in sustainability, particularly in water, energy, and waste management [119]. Specifically, due to its outstanding sustainable performance, it has been awarded Singapore’s Green Mark for green design and construction, the Design and Engineering Safety Excellence Award from the Building and Construction Authority, and the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Gold certification from the U.S. Green Building Council [120].

The museum’s most notable innovation is its integrated rainwater harvesting technology, which leverages the country’s tropical climate and frequent rainfall to support sustainable practices [113]. The museum’s lotus flower-inspired shape comprises ten petals, each housing a gallery. The unique roof design facilitates rainwater collection through a central oculus, creating an artificial 35 m waterfall. The drained water is then recycled for use in the building’s restrooms, water feature maintenance, and landscaped outdoor areas [113,121].

Statistically, this innovation enables the recycling of approximately 1,400,000 L of rainwater annually, resulting in an overall 30% reduction in the museum’s internal water consumption. This performance has earned the ArtScience Museum a score of 12 out of 14 in terms of water efficiency [119].

An equally important feature of the museum is the penetration of natural light into the exhibition spaces, once again achieved through the petals, which are designed to absorb the maximum possible amount of daylight, thereby contributing to the museum’s energy independence [113]. This independence is further supported by energy-efficient systems, sustainable materials, and LED lighting, including the installation of solar films on lobby windows that save energy by reducing the need for air conditioning through minimized heat gain. As a direct result, the museum is 47% more energy efficient compared to similar institutions, earning it a score of 16 out of 35 in terms of energy and atmospheric sustainability [119].

Comparable in value is the museum’s contribution to the preservation of local wildlife—both flora and fauna. By employing virtual reality technologies, visitors are given the opportunity to “explore” the forests of Southeast Asia, encounter native species such as tigers and pangolins, and become more aware of environmental issues. This immersive experience encourages them to take action, for instance by symbolically planting a virtual tree as a gesture of environmental commitment [119]. In addition to promoting environmental awareness through immersive experiences, the ArtScience Museum actively incorporates sustainable practices into its everyday operations [122]. It earned 21 out of 26 points for site sustainability, including the reuse or recycling of 75% of durable goods and effective waste management that recycles over half of operational waste. Over 50% of its office and cleaning supplies are certified sustainable. The museum also scored in other areas: 1 point for materials and resources, 10 out of 15 for indoor environmental quality, and 6 points for innovation and regional priorities [119].

4.3.3. Exhibitions, Programs and Workshops

As a center for culture and science, the museum offers a wide range of exhibitions, programs, and workshops that span approximately 5000 square meters, spread across three floors and a total of 21 galleries. Through the ArtScience Laboratory, visitors of all ages engage in interactive programs structured around five core themes: creative workshops, engineering activities, sustainability initiatives, artistic explorations, and wellness sessions. The museum has also hosted major exhibitions exploring diverse scientific topics, such as big data, particle physics, paleontology, marine biology, cosmology, and space exploration, presenting these complex subjects in an accessible and thought-provoking manner [123]. Landmark exhibitions such as Future World: Where Art Meets Science, which features interactive and augmented reality technologies, and DreamWorks Animation: The Exhibition, highlighting the creative legacy of the studio, further reinforce the museum’s educational mission [124,125]. ArtScience Museum’s ArtScience at School [126] initiative brings the museum’s rich interdisciplinary content directly into classrooms through engaging virtual sessions. Designed to mirror the authenticity of an on-site visit, each one-hour program includes an exhibition introduction, a specially curated recorded tour, and a hands-on activity. The initiative aims to foster a deeper appreciation of learning beyond textbooks by highlighting the connections between art and science. It encourages students to take initiative in constructing knowledge, see museums as dynamic spaces for learning and dialog, and make meaningful links between curriculum topics and real-world contexts. The program supports the development of 21st-century skills by cultivating curiosity, creativity, and critical thinking in young learners.

4.3.4. Promoting Psychological Well-Being and Human Awareness

According to Dhwani Shanghvi, in her article published in STIRworld [127], a notable past exhibition at the ArtScience Museum, titled Mental: Colours of Wellbeing, exemplified the convergence of art and science in addressing psychosomatic health. Organized in collaboration with the Science Gallery Melbourne, the exhibition focused on the complexity of mental well-being, fostering dialog and understanding through both artistic expression and scientific insight. The exhibition contributed to challenging social stereotypes while positioning art as a medium of therapeutic exploration. Situated within a broader sociocultural framework, it emphasized the pressing need to reconceptualize mental well-being in the 21st century, placing communication and acceptance at the heart of the modern museum experience. This commitment continues today through exhibitions such as Mind and Body: The Art and Science of Being Human [128], which explores what it means to think, feel, and exist as human beings, reaffirming the museum’s role as a space for interdisciplinary reflection on the human condition.

4.3.5. Digital Innovation

As a contemporary institution, the ArtScience Museum maintains an active presence on social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube, aiming to keep its audience informed and engaged. Embracing the latest technological advancements, the museum has established a permanent virtual reality gallery, equipped with state-of-the-art VR headsets and controllers, allowing visitors to explore works by renowned artists, scientists, museums, and film festivals [128] (Figure 4). A similar initiative, the ArtScience Interlude, offers a rotating digital art display on LED screens in the museum’s lobby, presenting a new artwork every hour [129]. In addition, the museum houses a cinema hall featuring comfortable seating, high-quality sound systems, and wireless headphones, where it screens feature films, cinematic retrospectives, documentaries, and award-winning entries from international film festivals [130]. One such highlight is the Sustainable Futures Film Festival, scheduled for this July at the ArtScience Museum. Through powerful storytelling, it explores pressing themes such as ecological resilience, emotional connections to the environment, and efforts to safeguard vanishing landscapes and cultural traditions [131]. Finally, ArtScience at Home is the museum’s most recent online program, providing access to digital tours, workshops, talks, performances, and various other cultural experiences [132].

4.3.6. Architectural Salience and Identity

The ArtScience Museum was conceived as a prominent architectural landmark within the Marina Bay Sands complex, reinforcing the identity of the urban landscape and contributing to revitalizing the city’s social and cultural fabric [133]. Reflecting Singapore’s contemporary perspective on the arts while honoring its cultural heritage, the museum’s structure may appear simple, but a closer examination reveals the complex science and sustainability features that underpin its architectural design [113]. As a pioneering institution, it holds the distinction of being the world’s first museum dedicated exclusively to the fusion of art and science, instantly capturing attention as a symbol of innovation [133].

Central to its global identity is the lotus flower motif, deliberately chosen as the conceptual foundation of the design, inspired by natural patterns and processes. For many visitors and observers, the asymmetrical petals evoke the image of a “welcoming hand,” symbolically greeting those entering the city [134]. According to Ahmad [113], the museum’s direct connection with natural engineering is reflected in the illusion that the structure is floating on water. To achieve this effect, the lead architect of the ArtScience Museum, Moshe Safdie, and his team studied natural forms and observed that mangroves and tree roots are capable of supporting significant weight as long as they branch outward. Similarly, the entire weight of the museum is supported by its “roots,” which extend beneath the surrounding reflecting pool.

Structurally, the museum consists of two primary components: a grounded base embedded in the earth, bordered by Marina Bay’s waters and a lily pond, and an elevated, flower-like superstructure comprising ten petals [116]. According to Szolomicki and Golasz-Szolomicka [111], these petals emerge asymmetrically at varying heights—reaching up to 60 m—and appear to hover above the water’s surface, enhancing the building’s sense of lightness. Each petal features a skylight, allowing natural light to penetrate the interior. The exhibitions are organized around a central atrium, while the upper levels are arranged into ten galleries of varying height and length. The museum’s entrance is accessed through a freestanding glass pavilion. The building is supported by ten steel columns and a central steel diagrid structure, which efficiently distributes the asymmetrical loads generated by the building’s distinctive form. An architectural innovation is the use of a double-curved fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composite material on the façade—commonly employed in shipbuilding—which enabled the creation of a continuous, smooth, and reflective surface, enhancing both the sculptural quality and the visual lightness of the construction (Figure 5).

5. Comparative Analysis

The following

Table 1. Common Characteristics and Comparative Strengths of the Acropolis Museum and the ArtScience Museum.

Thematic Axis	Shared Characteristics—Key Strengths
Cultural Identity and Urban Integration	Both museums play a pivotal role in the promotion of cultural identity, actively contributing to the symbolic representation and urban distinctiveness of their cities.
Social Agent and Accessibility	Each institution is committed to social inclusion, ensuring equitable access and engaging diverse audiences through participatory and educational initiatives.
Environmental Orientation	Both museums integrate environmentally sustainable practices into their operational philosophy, including the use of natural resources, recycling systems, and eco-conscious architectural design.
Digital Innovation	The implementation of advanced digital technologies (e.g., virtual and augmented reality) enhances audience engagement and extends cultural access beyond physical boundaries.
Architectural Salience	Functioning as architectural landmarks, both museums embody a synthesis of form, function, and cultural symbolism, reinforcing their role as identity-shaping elements in the urban fabric.
Education and Cultural Promotion	Through comprehensive educational programs and digital outreach, both museums promote cultural awareness, creativity, and lifelong learning across multiple demographic groups.

Source: Own elaboration.

and

Table 2. Distinctive Features of the Acropolis Museum and the ArtScience Museum.

Thematic Axis	Acropolis Museum (Athens)	ArtScience Museum (Singapore)
Curatorial Focus	Focuses on the archeological and historical narrative of classical antiquity, with an emphasis on cultural continuity and heritage preservation.	Embraces an interdisciplinary framework that explores the intersections of art, science, and technology within a contemporary context.
Ownership	Functions as a state-regulated, publicly funded non-profit institution, aligned with national cultural policy.	Privately administered and embedded within a larger commercial and touristic infrastructure.
Cultural and Political Engagement	Actively contributes to international debates on cultural property and restitution, notably in relation to the Parthenon Sculptures.	Engages with global challenges by curating exhibitions on sustainability, mental health, and digital futures.
Architectural Identity	Designed to maintain continuity with its historical surroundings, reinforcing spatial authenticity and cultural symbolism.	Features a postmodern, biomimetic structure inspired by the lotus flower, symbolizing innovation, fluidity, and ecological integration.
Energy Efficiency and Sustainability Infrastructure	Applies climate-adapted architectural principles, including solar orientation and sustainable materials, to reduce its ecological footprint.	Utilizes state-of-the-art environmental systems, such as rainwater harvesting, meeting high-performance green certification standards.
Institutional Priorities and Social Focus	Concentrates on safeguarding national identity and cultural legacy through academic research and civic engagement.	Promotes innovation, inclusivity, and environmental consciousness, fostering dialog on emergent societal concerns.

Source: Own elaboration.

provide a summary of the shared and distinct characteristics of the two museums, aiming to support the comparative analysis and highlight the elements that contribute to sustainable cultural development.

Through the comparative lens of the two landmark museums of Athens and Singapore, a shared trajectory emerges:

As shown in Table 1, both examined museums have significantly contributed to shaping the cultural profile of their respective cities, enhancing cultural identity and reinforcing their uniqueness in the competitive environment among urban destinations. Beyond their economic value, both institutions place strong emphasis on social and environmental impact within local community. They are both committed to social inclusion and accessibility, while they implement environmentally sustainable practices to reduce their ecological footprint. Also, in a high-digitalized environment, neither museum has remined passive. Both museums have developed innovative technological solutions to enhance visitors’ experience. Ultimately, each museum uses their educational and cultural programs to foster cultural awareness, stimulate creativity and promote historical thinking among diverse visitors.

Despite shared commitments to urban development, sustainability and digital innovation, several attributes clearly diversify the two museums. The Acropolis Museum focuses on classical antiquity, with an emphasis on cultural continuity and heritage preservation. In contrast, the ArtScience Museum operates within a privatized, commercially oriented setting, promoting a curatorial vision that merges artistic, scientific, and technological dimensions to address pressing contemporary issues such as environmental sustainability and psychological well-being. Despite notable differences in their institutional models, thematic priorities, and administrative structures, both museums demonstrate the capacity of context-specific cultural policies to advance inclusive urban development and contribute meaningfully to cross-cultural dialog on a global scale. Ultimately, this comparison affirms the evolving role of museums as multifunctional platforms for education, innovation, civic participation, and sustainability within contemporary urban environments.

6. Discussion Research Questions

The findings of this study reaffirm the evolving role of museums as dynamic agents of sustainable urban development. The comparative analysis between the Acropolis Museum in Athens and the ArtScience Museum in Singapore demonstrates that museums—irrespective of their curatorial orientation or governance model—act as catalysts for social inclusion, cultural continuity, economic stimulation, and environmental responsiveness. Their contribution transcends the traditional scope of heritage preservation or exhibition programming; instead, they operate as mediators between past and future, society and policy, space and identity.

What emerges from the comparative lens is not a universal model, but rather a demonstration of how museums can adapt to the specific developmental trajectories and cultural strategies of different urban environments. The Acropolis Museum reflects a heritage-driven approach closely tied to national identity and international cultural diplomacy, while the ArtScience Museum exemplifies an innovation-led model that anticipates cultural futures through interdisciplinary and sustainability-oriented engagement.

These insights align with and extend existing scholarship that emphasizes the multifaceted impact of museums on urban regeneration [13,71,77,79]. The added value, however, is that the cross-continental perspective introduced in this study adds a novel comparative dimension, suggesting that the museum’s influence is shaped not only by institutional form or thematic focus, but also by the socio-political and economic frameworks in which it operates.

Ultimately, by embedding museums within strategic cultural policies that prioritize sustainability, innovation, and inclusivity, cities can leverage these institutions as key instruments for building resilient, cohesive, and future-oriented urban landscapes.

Regarding the research questions in particular, our analysis shows:

• RQ1: The examined case studies align with several international frameworks, including the UNESCO’s Culture for Sustainable Urban Development and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGS) of the United Nations, and more specific goals 8 and 11 [135]. The examined paradigms highlight two distinct yet complementary ways through which museums influence the sustainable development of cities. In Athens, the Acropolis Museum strengthens cultural continuity by preserving and activating collective memory, while also creating a unique identity of the place. In Singapore, the ArtScience Museum operates as a space of creative convergence, where art, science, and technology intersect to support contemporary urban narratives. In a holistic perspective, these approaches illustrate the complementary range of museums function. On the one hand, the preservation of cultural heritage, and on the other hand the interdisciplinary creativity driven by innovation.

Socially, both institutions promote inclusivity—not only by ensuring physical accessibility, but also by designing participatory programs that respond to diverse audiences. Particularly in Singapore, exhibitions addressing mental health and sustainability indicate a progressive agenda aligned with the social priorities of a global metropolis. From an economic standpoint, museums act as engines of development. The Acropolis Museum supports the heritage tourism economy through its symbolic centrality, whereas the ArtScience Museum contributes to Singapore’s broader innovation and creative industries sector. In both cases, museums integrate into urban economies through differentiated strategies adapted to local conditions.

From a cross-learning perspective, each museum can adopt good practices from the other in order to strengthen their role in urban development and sustainability. For instance, the Acropolis Museum could expand their cultural profile by integrating more progressive programs that address contemporary global issues, while the ArtScience museum could evolve by deepening its engagement with historical and cultural continuity. Ultimately, museums, whether rooted in heritage or innovation, can serve as anchors for sustainable urban development when they integrate cultural identity, social inclusion, and economic vitality into strategies implemented across the city.

• RQ2: Museums shape and project urban identity by acting as platforms where historical narratives and cultural aspirations are articulated. The Acropolis Museum reinforces Athens’ identity as a custodian of classical heritage and serves as a visual and symbolic anchor within the city’s historic core. Its physical and conceptual alignment with the Acropolis allows it to function as a space of cultural affirmation and national representative. In contrast, the ArtScience Museum projects a future-oriented identity for Singapore. Its interdisciplinary focus, combined with iconic architecture and a diverse exhibition agenda, positions the city as a progressive, globally engaged cultural hub. Rather than grounding identity in the past, it constructs it through innovation and creative experimentation. This duality illustrates how museums can either deepen a city’s rooted identity or catalyze its reinvention—both strategies contributing to meaningful urban distinctiveness.

• RQ3: As strategic assets, museums influence both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of urban tourism. Their impact on urban tourism is a complex phenomenon shaped by their institutional positioning, program content, and their integration into broader urban development strategies. In Athens, the Acropolis Museum enhances the city’s profile as a classical heritage destination by offering a high-quality cultural experience directly tied to its archeological context. It plays an essential role in sustaining cultural tourism flows and increasing the economic value of the city’s heritage. To better understand the important role of the Acropolis and the Acropolis Museum in Athens’ tourism flows, we can examine the existing data. According to the Hellenic Statistical Authority, in 2024 the total number of museum visitors reached almost 460,000, while the Acropolis Museum alone attracted nearly 165,000 visitors, placing it first on the list. The second most visited museum, the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, recorded nearly 48,000 visitors, followed by the Delphi Museum with 22,500 visitors [136]. The significant difference in the numbers clearly illustrates the strong motivational role the Acropolis Museum plays in attracting visitors to Athens.

In Singapore, the ArtScience Museum’s integration into a broader leisure and innovation complex reflects a multi-scalar economic strategy. By offering immersive, high-tech exhibitions, it appeals to a broad spectrum of visitors—from families to professionals—thus expanding the city’s tourism offer beyond traditional models. Such approach can lead to an increase in tourist flows throughout the year, mitigating the effects of seasonality and having a positive impact on urban economic development, ensuring a more stable and diversified visitor economy [16].

In both cities, the “superstar museums” contribute to local economic ecosystems not only through direct revenues, but by reinforcing the city’s global visibility and competitiveness as a cultural destination.

• RQ4: The comparative analysis underscores that urban development through culture is not monolithic but context dependent. For both cities, the urban development has been shaped by their unique social, economic, environmental and spatial conditions. Athens demonstrates a model of culture-led regeneration where historical—archeological authenticity, public symbolism, and cultural diplomacy form the basis of urban development. The Acropolis Museum exemplifies how safeguarding heritage can translate into civic pride, international visibility, and cultural legitimacy. However, examining the broader cultural market of Athens reveals several challenges. The Acropolis and its Museum are among the most important cultural sites in the city, attracting high visitors’ numbers that lead to overtourism phenomena during peak season, particularly in summer, resulting in decreased visitors’ satisfaction. This highlights the urgent need for a strategic visitor management plan that promotes alternative cultural attractions in peripheral areas. That is why an effective development of public transportation network is crucial to connect these diverse points of interest without affecting negatively the visitors experience and being more environmentally friendly [137].

In Singapore, the ArtScience Museum exemplifies the integration of culture into broader innovation-driven and sustainability-focused urban policies. Here, culture is not only preserved but also produced as part of a strategic agenda for global competitiveness and human capital development. In a wider context, embedding culture as a pillar for sustainable development could have positive effects. Yang and Tian [138] argue that cultural-driven development can produce beneficial environmental effects within a range of approximately 14 km around cultural attractions. Nevertheless, it is important to every urban development approach to be inclusive and move beyond top-down decision-making to a continuous process that incorporates diverse social, economic, political, and environmental considerations [139].

The Athens-Singapore juxtaposition thus illustrates two paradigms: cultural continuity versus cultural hybridity, heritage conservation versus interdisciplinary innovation. Yet both models converge in recognizing museums as urban tools for shaping identities, fostering inclusion, and supporting policy agendas that transcend the cultural sector per se. These cases confirm what is well established. Nowadays, the unique cultural identity of cities, often expressed though museums, functions as a competitive advantage in attracting more visitors, residents and businesses [52].

7. Conclusions

In recent decades, the role of museum on urban development and sustainability has attracted increased interest. There are several examples across the globe where cities use their cultural assets and museums for urban development planning in order to increase tourism flows and help communities flourish from an economic, environmental and social perspective. This study underscores the vital role of museums as strategic instruments in the sustainable development of contemporary cities.

By comparing the Acropolis Museum and the ArtScience Museum, it has been demonstrated that museums, beyond their traditional function as custodians of heritage, operate as interdisciplinary platforms that foster innovation, inclusivity, and cultural diplomacy. More specifically, this study enriches the current literature by identifying common characteristics among landmarks museums. Despite differences in governance and orientation, both case studies reveal how tailored cultural policies can utilize the assets of each institution to support cohesive urban identities and foster cross-cultural engagement. As cities increasingly seek models of sustainable development grounded in cultural vitality, museums emerge as essential actors in achieving environmental responsibility, social cohesion, and long-term urban progress.

Our findings highlight that the role of the landmark museums in urban development is complex and multidimensional. Regardless of the orientation, a common characteristic is their capacity to share the cultural image of the city in which they are located. In our research, the Acropolis Museum strengthens cultural continuity by preserving and activating collective memory, while also creating a unique identity of the place. In contrast, the ArtScience Museum operates as a space of creative convergence, where art, science, and technology intersect to support contemporary urban narratives. Yet, despite their different orientations, both museums contribute to expanding cultural tourism, which can mitigate seasonality and stimulate local economy.

For practical implication, the present study enriches the dialog regarding the role of museums in urban development and regeneration. Our findings can help city authorities, cultural planners and tourism authorities in designing strategies that include museums into wider urban development plans. When it comes to heritage-rich cities such as Athens, this may involve diversifying cultural offerings and promote several points that may interest tourist in order to reduce overtourism pressures on flagship sites. On the other hand, for innovation-driven cities like Singapore, the link between museums and knowledge-based sectors should be strengthen in order to sustain year-round tourism and stimulate economic activity. In both cases, implementing participatory planning processes and investing in sustainable practices can ensure that museums not only preserve cultural assets but also actively contribute to inclusive, environmentally responsible urban development.

This paper’s added value lies in its cross-continental comparative approach, examining two landmark museums—one in Athens (Europe) and one in Singapore (Asia)—within distinct cultural, political, and institutional contexts. By integrating five analytical dimensions, it offers a holistic framework that connects museum practice with sustainable urban development, providing insights relevant to both academic research and cultural policy design.

A key limitation of this study is the reliance on qualitative methods and the focus on only two cases, which may not fully represent the diversity of museum models across various regions. Future research could broaden this framework by including museums from different continents and quantitatively measuring the socio-economic effects of museum-driven urban policies.