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Article

3D HBIM Model and Full Contactless GPR Tomography: An Experimental Application on the Historic Walls That Support Giotto’s Mural Paintings, Santa Croce Basilica, Florence—Italy

by
Massimo Coli
1,*,
Anna Livia Ciuffreda
1,
Emanuele Marchetti
1,
Davide Morandi
2,
Giammarco Luceretti
2 and
Zeno Lippi
2
1
Department of Earth Sciences, Florence University, 50121 Florence, Italy
2
Hexagon Group, IDS Georadar S.R.L., 56121 Pisa, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Heritage 2022, 5(3), 2534-2546; https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5030132
Submission received: 7 July 2022 / Revised: 2 September 2022 / Accepted: 3 September 2022 / Published: 5 September 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Materials and Heritage)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar) is a technology widely applied today in the field of non-destructive investigations. From its first applications, the field of use has involved environmental and archaeological contexts and, only recently, non-destructive investigations for the diagnostics of existing buildings, including historical ones. In the latter, the GPR is, in particular, addressed to the NDT diagnostics of walls, which often support paintings of considerable value. In this study, GPR technology was used to investigate the walls of the Bardi Chapel in the Santa Croce Basilica in Florence, which features Giotto’s frescoes. The GPR acquisition was performed with a three-antenna module that, through multiple scans, allowed to reconstruct the full 3D tomography of the three main walls of the chapel. The development of a customized system made it possible to extend the investigation area to almost the entire wall and to avoid contact between the instrument and the wall paint, thus safeguarding its integrity. The collected data, once inserted in a unified framework of the HBIM model, geo-referenced, and equipped with the information content, allowed us to evaluate the masonry structure and to generate masonry data for subsequent seismic vulnerability assessments.

1. Introduction

This work is part of a cooperation research jointly developed by the DST—Department of Earth Sciences of the Florence University (Italy); the ODP—Opificio delle Pietre Dure, an Institute of Excellence of the Italian Ministry of Culture; and the IDS Georadar (Hexagon Group) to investigate the potential of applying GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar) to cultural heritage buildings’ masonries.
Cultural heritage buildings represent examples in which the use of invasive techniques for the investigation of structures are not acceptable, as they are contrary to the principles of protection and conservation dictated by Italian regulations [1].
However, acquiring information regarding the internal structure of the walls, their state of conservation, and the presence of cracks and voids, is fundamental for the safety of the structure, where often the walls are the support of decorative elements and important wall paintings. Furthermore, the determination of the type of masonry and of the mechanical characteristics are necessary data for defining the structural model aimed at the evaluation of the seismic vulnerability [2].
Among the non-invasive investigation techniques, GPR (Ground Penetrating Radar) generates great interest for its simplicity and speed of execution, for the reliability of its results, and for the variety of its fields of application. GPR, in fact, is used on structures of various types and materials; however, it has been applied experimentally, and with positive results, for investigating historical masonry only recently, in the context of this particular scientific cooperation.
Among the most important case studies are Brunelleschi’s Dome [3], the Baptistery of San Giovanni [4], the Maddalena Chapel at the Bargello Museum [5], and works of art such as the Etruscan Pediment of the Tarantola [6], all in Florence, Italy. Each case study has required specific refinement and development both of the techniques and methods of data collection and of their processing and restitution.
This work represents follow-up research for the application of GPR to historic masonries. The objects of study are the walls of the Bardi Chapel at the Santa Croce Basilica in Florence (Italy) (Figure 1).
The Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence (Italy) was erected for the Franciscan order in the years 1294–1443, on the site of two previous churches [7], based on plans by the famous architect Arnolfo di Cambio and by Vasari [8].
Today, the Basilica represents one of the most notable historical buildings in Florence and is a sanctuary in the history of Italy with the tombs of many illustrious personalities, which is also mentioned by Foscolo in his famous ode “Dei Sepolcri” (Ugo Foscolo, 1805), thanks to which the Santa Croce Basilica is considered Italy’s Temple of Fame.
Giotto di Bondone (1267–1337) is a cornerstone in the history of painting, because he opened the doors of Renaissance painting with a new style that would change the history of art.
These two excellences of Arnolfo and Giotto coexist in the chapel owned by the Bardi family, who were powerful bankers in Florence. The side walls of the chapel are entirely covered with a painting cycle created with the “dry” technique by Giotto in 1325 and are dedicated to the Stories of St. Francis of Assisi. The cycle of wall paintings was covered over in the 18th century and then rediscovered in the mid-19th century; today, it is marked in some areas by gaps due to previous conservation interventions [9].
The chapel has a square plan and consists of a single span with a cross vault with ribs. The side walls without stone decorations hold the paintings by Giotto, while the back wall has a double-arched window.
These features, combined with the considerable height of the space, make it an excellent example for the extensive application of the GPR technique.
The experimentation of GPR applied to cultural heritage has led to the search for ways of displaying data that would facilitate their interpretation and archiving.
Therefore, as part of the research on the digitization of diagnostic campaigns using the BIM methodology conducted by the DST, this methodology was also applied to the case study of the Bardi Chapel.
In recent years, we established, as our modus operandi, the plans to build a 3D HBIM model, in which to embed all the investigations performed in their real 3D space [5,6,10].
The BIM methodology is currently used in architecture and engineering because it allows the insertion of the properties and information of a project into a three-dimensional model. However, in the literature, there are many examples of enrichment of BIM models by means of information coming from diagnostic investigations [11].
Thanks to the financial support of the OPD, and with the permission of the Opera di Santa Croce, which has been in charge of the conservation of the Basilica since the 14th century, we developed the HBIM content and a full 3D tomographic GPR survey of the walls of the chapel.
In this study, the fragility of the pictorial surfaces and the necessity for an upcoming and more extensive conservation project induced us to experiment, for the first time, with a new type of contactless GPR antenna. Our purpose was:
  • To apply, for the first time, a new generation of GPR antenna, operating in a contactless mode with respect to the investigated surface.
  • To define the structure and assemblages of the masonry supporting Giotto’s paintings.
  • To define the masonry parameters for a seismic vulnerability assessment, according to Italian regulations [12].
  • To build a HBIM informative model of the Bardi Chapel, in which to embed all the investigations in their real 3D space.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. GPR Contactless Antenna

A GPR survey has been commonly used for investigating subsoil objects [13], lithological contacts [14,15,16], faults [17], and fractures in rock-mass [18,19,20,21] and for defining soil units [22,23,24,25,26,27] and the water table level [3,24,28,29].
GPR has been also applied for investigating concrete in bridges and tunnels and for binder durability [30,31]; only recently, the GPR has been introduced to investigate masonry structure and assemblage [32,33,34].
GPR uses the two-way travel time between a high-frequency electromagnetic input in the radar range 100 MHz–100 GHz and its return; the radar input travels in the material at a velocity mainly related to its magnetic conductivity and permeability [35,36,37]. The boundary between materials with different electromagnetic properties partially backscatters the signal to the antenna.
GPR acquisition is usually performed moving the antenna along a linear survey, and the result is a 2D profile of the back-scattered electromagnetic signal from internal features of the investigated material as a function of travel-time. The latter can be converted into depth, thus providing the 2D geometrical structure of the medium. The degree of penetration of the signal into the material is a function of the material properties and the signal frequency: the lower the frequency is, the higher the penetration but the fewer details of the investigation because they are a function of the wavelength. The knowledge of the wave velocity in the masonry or that of its thickness is of great help for a correct analysis.
In this work, a new generation of GPR antenna had been used. This new equipment (Stream T by IDS Georadar—Hexagon Group) consisted of 3 antenna modules connected in a continuous chain (90 cm width—Figure 2), emitting at 900 MHz, with horizontal polarization, which is suitable to acquire data in a contactless mode, staying at about 15 cm from the masonry surface. In this situation, the fragile setting of Giotto’s mural painting was, therefore, safeguarded.
Differently from other GPR systems that provide a 2D profile of back-scattered electromagnetic energy along the survey, the 3-antenna module of the Stream T used in this study allows to reconstruct, for each survey, the 3D structure of the medium, with two orthogonal axes along the surface of the medium, corresponding to the antenna width (90 cm) and the linear extension of the survey, and a third axis inside the investigated medium, indicating the depth of structures backscattering energy inverted from travel times; this approach, therefore, provides a GPR tomography of the medium and avoids the interpolation of multiple scans [38,39,40].
The collected data has been processed through GRED HD Software (IDS Georadar—Hexagon Group), which provides multiple views of radar data, making it easier and faster to pick out anomalies. The output from the full 3D tomography can be single radargram cuts vertically or horizontally or slices lying parallel to the wall surface (Figure 2).

2.2. Surveying

In order to operate all along the walls of the Bardi Chapel, which is 7 m high, the GPR antenna was mounted on the basket of an elevator crane (Figure 3).
That made it possible to keep the antenna at a constant distance of about 15 cm from the wall’s surfaces, as it moved in subsequent vertical strips that were laterally contiguous.
Each strip had been accurately referenced in order to place the 3D tomography in the right 3D space on the HBIM content (Figure 4).
Preliminarily, the wall thickness was measured in the HBIM model (62 cm), and the Vp velocity was defined by means of a sonic survey; it resulted in wall thickness around 2600 m/s, indicating very good and solid masonry.
A set of four DAC tests and endoscopies was previously carried out on the external façade to punctually determine the setting of the masonry, such as drill holes for taring a seismic survey (Figure 5).

2.3. HBIM Informative Model

For the management and organization of the data collected during the GPR diagnostic campaign, it was decided to create a 3D model of the chapel that would highlight the detected wall structure and show the location of the various surveys and their results in a unified framework.
The choice of the BIM methodology for this case study depended on two needs: on the one hand, the need to interpret the results in close relationship with the context in which the surveys were carried out; on the other hand, the possibility of linking descriptive information to the model objects in such a way that allows for the identification of elements such as the investigation, the instrument, the date of the test, the results, etc.
In this case, as in other studies carried out by our research group, the preparation of the model constituted the first step of the construction of an informative database that could be completed and implemented.
In the case of the BIM model of the Bardi Chapel, information relating only to the GPR surveys was entered, pending further diagnostic investigations in the construction phase (Figure 6).
The chapel structures were modelled using Revit (Autodesk) system families, with customized stratigraphy and materials that had suitable textures to ensure the recognizability of the different structures.
The application of orthophotos on the walls of the model allows for taking into account the pictorial surface during both the investigation and the interpretation of the results.
The insertion of the surveys into the model was achieved through the creation of specific families to which the parameters should be linked.
First, objects were created to view the wall volumes investigated, and then radargrams were inserted on special objects placed at different depths inside the walls to reconstruct a 3D tomography that would allow the visualization of anomalies in relation to the wall surface that holds the mural paintings.
Each surveyed object has been provided with an ID that identifies it, which can be viewed using the appropriate label. The surveys’ families have been associated with parameters that allow the insertion of information such as the date of execution, the description, the instrument used, and the results. The use of survey schedules allowed interrogation of the model and rapid modification of information.
The visualization of the model is managed through customized views and in a 3D environment through dynamic and exploded sections that facilitate the public presentation of the research results.
The resulting model constitutes a valid aid for identifying anomalies in their exact position in relation to the presence of the painted surface, and for storing the data of the diagnostic investigations in a single container complete with all the information.

3. Results

The results of this study, coupling 3D HBIM reconstruction and a third-generation “contactless” GPS antenna, has been very promising, allowing for the creation of a perfect full 3D tomography of the Bardi Chapel masonries.

3.1. GPR Interpretation

The GPR survey was carried out on the north, east, and south walls of the Bardi Chapel, which are covered by Giotto’s mural paintings (Figure 7). The aim of the survey was to verify the presence of voids and fractures on the Bardi Chapel walls and to define the structure and assemblages of the masonry.
The GPR tomography and the radargrams clearly show some anomalies in the depth range of 0.20–0.30 m from the surface, due to non-homogeneous materials with various electromagnetic characteristics (Figure 8). This GPR texture is common in old buildings, where the areas with high radar reflectivity are close to homogeneous ones, and, very often, they are connected to voids inside the masonry or to putlog holes that were not well-buffered.
The order of accuracy of the measurements depends on the frequency of the antenna; in this case, with an antenna at 900 MHz, we can consider around 5 mm.
The layering of the signal can be related to the passage between the plaster and stone quoins that constitute the external face of the wall and the inner core of the masonry made up of mixed stone pieces and mortar.
The tomography and radargrams acquired on the north and south walls of the Bardi Chapel show a typical spotty distribution of the anomalies, related to the casual assemblage of the stones/bricks and mortar that constitute the wall filling (Figure 9).
The radargrams collected on the north wall of the Bardi Chapel show some alignments, which characterize the first external levels of the wall (Figure 9).
These alignments can be associated with a typical frescoed section; usually this is some cm thick, although in this case, due to the need of imposing a constant velocity, it was not possible to define in detail the layers’ thicknesses, but they are within 10 cm. This topic will be further investigated by in situ inspection during the upcoming restoration.
In the radargrams, setting the wave velocity evaluation at approx. 2600 m/s, per the sonic survey, the thickness of the chapel walls is clearly marked by the GPR wave propagation in the air, which corresponds exactly to that of the 3D HBIM.

3.2. Masonry Setting

The walls of the Bardi Chapel appear well-done and about 120 cm thick, which correspond to two Florentine arms (0.58 m), the historical measuring length used in Florence, for the rear walls and to one Florentine arm (about 60 cm) for the lateral walls separating the chapel from adjacent ones.
The masonries of the external walls appear to be made of a double face of well-tightened quoins, with the rear faces let facciavista (exposed) at regular rows, with mortar layers around 2 cm thick (Figure 10); the internal walls are plastered and covered by the support of the paintings.
This configuration is confirmed by the microperforations (DAC test) made on the external side of the back wall of the chapel. The videos and photos of the inspection confirm the presence of an external stone curtain about 30 cm thick and of a central core of heterogeneous material.
The building stone used is the Pietraforte, a quartz-calcareous arenaceous turbiditic sandstone, placed flat according to the bedding and in rows having a modal thickness of 15–30 cm, which is the modal thickness of the Pietraforte beds; technical physical–mechanical data for Pietraforte have been recently published [41]. The quarries were located in the area of the current Boboli Garden in the first hills south of Florence [42].
This masonry refers to the type of “stonemason techniques with quarry quoins placed on horizontal rows” [43].
The mortar of the Florentine buildings of that time has been analysed by [44,45,46]; it was found to be consistent and strong, with very good mechanical properties, and made by Alberese limestone and sands from the Arno riverbed with predominantly quartz grains.

4. Discussion

The walls of the Bardi Chapel appear solid and well-done, made by tightly sealed flat quoins, with the external side exposed (facciavista) and the internal side plastered.
The masonry consists of regular successive courses of quoins in rows for the thickness of the entire masonry, with the exposed face well-finished and inside a full bulk masonry with a stone/mortar ratio around 70%; diatons (stone elements placed crosswise) reinforce the masonry.
According to the Abacus of Tuscany Region on historic walls [47], this is Type B1AoMb: “Squared stone walls with elements that are not homogeneous but well meshed in the longitudinal and transversal direction, good quality mortar”; thus, it is not sack masonry but full masonry (Figure 11).
Taking into account [47], the masonry is of type: “split stone masonry with good texture” in the provision of Table C8.5.1, and, according to Table C8A.2.1 of [47], it is in Category II “Wall with hewn segments with limited thickness and internal core”.
Reference values for the mechanical parameters of this type of masonry are reported; these values would be corrected according to the state of maintenance of the masonry, which in this case is excellent and, therefore, they are to be increased according to Table C8A.2.2 of [47] and, thus, result as shown in Table 1.
Considering the sonic velocity determined at around 2600 m/s and assuming a Poisson ratio = 0.2, we can obtain a Young’s modulus ≈ 1430 N/mm3, a value that is in line with the prediction of the NTC2018 reference data for good masonry.

5. Conclusions

The experimental work described here aimed to introduce 3D GPR tomography into the 3D HBIM content, for a detailed analysis of the masonry supporting Giotto’s mural painting covering the walls of the Bardi Chapel in the Santa Croce Basilica in Florence, Italy.
In this study, a new generation of GPR antenna was used, which allowed us to work in contactless mode and, thus, to carry out the analysis without compromising the integrity of the mural paintings.
DAC tests with endoscopies and sonic velocity determination gave constraints for the GPR data interpretation.
A general knowledge of historical masonry setting and its evolution through time [48,49,50,51,52] was necessary for fitting the surveyed data into a reliable model of the investigated masonry.
In the early 14th century, when the Santa Croce Basilica was built, masonry techniques had achieved a very good level, as testified by the many towers, religious buildings, and civil buildings built in Florence in those times, which are still standing in good conservation conditions [2,53,54].
This research on the Bardi Chapel masonry reveals the good technical level of the master masons involved in its construction and allows its identification with one of the categories provided by [47], with the definition of the mechanical parameter values necessary for the seismic verification assessment.
The 3D HBIM model appears to be essential for correctly positioning GPR data, thus resulting in a valid tool for creating a database containing all the 3D information for conservation strategies and design interventions.
We consider this study (Table 2) a full success because the targets have been achieved. The results of this study update our current knowledge of the structural assemblages and dynamic behaviour of the Santa Croce Basilica and provide invaluable information for the conservation of Giotto’s frescoes.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.C.; methodology, M.C. and A.L.C.; software, D.M.; validation, A.L.C., E.M. and M.C.; formal analysis, A.L.C., Z.L. and G.L.; investigation, Z.L., G.L. and A.L.C.; resources, M.C.; data curation, A.L.C. and Z.L.; writing—original draft preparation, M.C., A.L.C. and D.M.; writing—review and editing, A.L.C. and E.M.; supervision, M.C. and D.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by Opificio delle Pietre Dure (MIC), grant number COLI21OPIFICIO_BARDI INTEGR1.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments go to the Opera di Santa Croce for allowing the GPR survey execution inside the Bardi Chapel in the Santa Croce Basilica, Florence, Italy.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

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Figure 1. The aisle of the Santa Croce Basilica in Florence, Italy (left) and the Bardi Chapel (right).
Figure 1. The aisle of the Santa Croce Basilica in Florence, Italy (left) and the Bardi Chapel (right).
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Figure 2. The GPR antenna mounted in front of the basket of the elevator crane.
Figure 2. The GPR antenna mounted in front of the basket of the elevator crane.
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Figure 3. Georadar analysis output by GRED HD Software (IDS Georadara, Hexagon Group).
Figure 3. Georadar analysis output by GRED HD Software (IDS Georadara, Hexagon Group).
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Figure 4. The volumes scanned by the GPR-NT survey mounted in the 3D HBIM model.
Figure 4. The volumes scanned by the GPR-NT survey mounted in the 3D HBIM model.
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Figure 5. Execution of DAC test and an endoscopy by the external façade.
Figure 5. Execution of DAC test and an endoscopy by the external façade.
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Figure 6. View of the 3D-textured HBIM model and the 3D HBIM model with GPR investigations.
Figure 6. View of the 3D-textured HBIM model and the 3D HBIM model with GPR investigations.
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Figure 7. GPR tomography view superimposed on the east Bardi Chapel wall photo.
Figure 7. GPR tomography view superimposed on the east Bardi Chapel wall photo.
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Figure 8. GPR tomography view superimposed on the south and north wall orthophotos of the Bardi Chapel in the HBIM model.
Figure 8. GPR tomography view superimposed on the south and north wall orthophotos of the Bardi Chapel in the HBIM model.
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Figure 9. GPR radar section collected on the north wall of the Bardi Chapel, which reports a correlation with a typical frescoed section. (a) North side of the chapel with the surveyed strips, (b) radargram along the red line of (a), (c) enlargement of the first layers of the radargram of (b), and (d) classical setting of a frescoed plaster.
Figure 9. GPR radar section collected on the north wall of the Bardi Chapel, which reports a correlation with a typical frescoed section. (a) North side of the chapel with the surveyed strips, (b) radargram along the red line of (a), (c) enlargement of the first layers of the radargram of (b), and (d) classical setting of a frescoed plaster.
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Figure 10. The rear façade of the Bardi Chapel, with a facciavista setting in regular rows of Pietraforte quoins and mortar layers of about 2 cm.
Figure 10. The rear façade of the Bardi Chapel, with a facciavista setting in regular rows of Pietraforte quoins and mortar layers of about 2 cm.
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Figure 11. (a) Rear external façade of the Bardi Chapel walls; (b) example of the B type masonry assemblages from [47] abacus, and (c) two images of the endoscopic investigations carried out.
Figure 11. (a) Rear external façade of the Bardi Chapel walls; (b) example of the B type masonry assemblages from [47] abacus, and (c) two images of the endoscopic investigations carried out.
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Table
Table 1. Physical–mechanical data according to Table C8A.2.1 and Table C8A.2.2 of [47] for the masonries of the Bardi Chapel.
Table 1. Physical–mechanical data according to Table C8A.2.1 and Table C8A.2.2 of [47] for the masonries of the Bardi Chapel.
Masonry Categoryf/m
N/cm2		T0
N/cm2		E
N/mm2		G
N/mm2		w
kN/m3
II200–3003.5–5.11020–1440340–48020
MaintenanceMortar qualityJoint < 10 mmRegistrations and appealsDiacroniNucleus quality
Very good1.41.21.21.50.8
Table
Table 2. Evaluation of the followed methodology.
Table 2. Evaluation of the followed methodology.
GoalsRating (1→3)
GPR application on large surfaces✓✓✓
Layers reading of mural painting✓
Wall texture reading✓✓
Reading of the internal masonry structure✓✓
Internal voids detection✓✓✓
Identification of construction elements✓✓
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MDPI and ACS Style

Coli, M.; Ciuffreda, A.L.; Marchetti, E.; Morandi, D.; Luceretti, G.; Lippi, Z. 3D HBIM Model and Full Contactless GPR Tomography: An Experimental Application on the Historic Walls That Support Giotto’s Mural Paintings, Santa Croce Basilica, Florence—Italy. Heritage 2022, 5, 2534-2546. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5030132

AMA Style

Coli M, Ciuffreda AL, Marchetti E, Morandi D, Luceretti G, Lippi Z. 3D HBIM Model and Full Contactless GPR Tomography: An Experimental Application on the Historic Walls That Support Giotto’s Mural Paintings, Santa Croce Basilica, Florence—Italy. Heritage. 2022; 5(3):2534-2546. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5030132

Chicago/Turabian Style

Coli, Massimo, Anna Livia Ciuffreda, Emanuele Marchetti, Davide Morandi, Giammarco Luceretti, and Zeno Lippi. 2022. "3D HBIM Model and Full Contactless GPR Tomography: An Experimental Application on the Historic Walls That Support Giotto’s Mural Paintings, Santa Croce Basilica, Florence—Italy" Heritage 5, no. 3: 2534-2546. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5030132

APA Style

Coli, M., Ciuffreda, A. L., Marchetti, E., Morandi, D., Luceretti, G., & Lippi, Z. (2022). 3D HBIM Model and Full Contactless GPR Tomography: An Experimental Application on the Historic Walls That Support Giotto’s Mural Paintings, Santa Croce Basilica, Florence—Italy. Heritage, 5(3), 2534-2546. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage5030132

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