Innovative Approaches to the Use of Artillery in Wildfire Suppression

Abstract

The increasing frequency and intensity of wildfires in hard-to-reach and hazardous areas represents a significant challenge for traditional firefighting methods. Wildfires pose a growing threat to the environment, property, and human lives. In many cases, conventional suppression techniques prove ineffective, highlighting the need for innovative and efficient solutions. Recent fires in the Bohemian Switzerland National Park in the Czech Republic; the Los Angeles area in California, USA; and the southeastern region of South Korea have underscored the necessity for alternative wildfire mitigation strategies. This article explores the potential of employing military technologies, such as artillery systems and specialized munitions, in wildfire suppression. The analysis includes a review of previous experiments, the research into non-standard methods, and an assessment of the risks and limitations associated with these approaches. Based on the research and simulations, it was found that one salvo (eight rounds) of fire-suppressant shells can cover up to 650 m² of terrain with suppressant. Finally, this article proposes a direction for further research aimed at integrating military and civilian technologies to enhance the effectiveness of wildfire response. This work contributes to the ongoing discussion on the integration of artillery capabilities into crisis management and provides a foundation for the future research in this field.

1. Introduction

Fires represent an increasingly serious problem, with global impacts on the environment, economy, and human society. Their frequency and intensity have risen in recent years, mainly due to climate change, rising temperatures, prolonged periods of drought, increasing urbanization, and similar factors [1]. Wildfires devastate the environment and related climate systems, cause economic damage, result in the loss of human life and health, and have significant social consequences for communities. They also threaten energy and industrial infrastructure. Underfunding of individual phases of crisis management—especially at the regional level—has a direct negative impact on prevention and preparedness for such disasters [2]. Fires have destructive effects across all sectors of life, which is why effective prevention and suppression are essential to minimizing their impact. The uncontrolled spread of fire—characterized primarily by its rapid advance—poses one of the greatest risks today. It requires interventions aimed at eliminating or at least reducing fire intensity, which is a priority both in crisis management and environmental protection. This is also closely linked to the economic evaluation of fire-related damage, as the total cost of a fire includes not only direct and indirect losses, but also the expenses of suppression operations, deployed resources, and preventive measures, including fire monitoring and control systems [3]. Based on the data from the Global Wildfire Information System (as of 12 May 2025), several hundred million hectares worldwide have been affected by wildfires annually over the past thirteen years. The largest burned areas were recorded in 2015 (443.51 million ha) and 2012 (437.67 million ha), with most other years ranging between 370 and 410 million hectares, as shown below in Figure 1. Although some years show slight downward fluctuations, the overall extent of wildfires remains consistently high and represents a serious global challenge, both environmentally and economically [4]. According to the United Nations Economic and Social Council, direct fire-related damage can reach nearly 1% of global GDP annually.

The wildfire in Bohemian Switzerland National Park in July 2022 was the most extensive forest fire in the modern history of the Czech Republic, affecting an area of approximately 1060 hectares [5]. In January 2025, the Los Angeles region was struck by a series of extremely intense wildfires that caused severe damage to infrastructure and impacted an area exceeding 23,000 hectares [6]. In March 2025, South Korea faced devastating wildfires in the southeastern part of the country, covering more than 48,000 hectares [7]. All of these fires reached extreme intensity, with strong winds and high temperatures making direct intervention by firefighting units impossible. Approaching the fire was only possible within several tens of meters, significantly complicating suppression efforts. In addition to high temperatures, other major issues included inaccessible terrain and fallen trees, which blocked key logistics routes and severely limited the mobility of deployed units. In many cases, firefighting efforts were limited to the creation of firebreaks to halt the spread of flames.

The current methods for combating forest and large-scale wildfires rely on various types of technologies and resources. Among the most widespread are aerial means—airplanes and helicopters equipped with tanks for water or fire retardants—which release their contents over the fire or in its path to create firebreaks. This method is particularly effective when dealing with large areas; however, its effectiveness can be significantly reduced by poor visibility, strong winds, nighttime conditions, or the unavailability of water sources for refilling. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are also used, primarily for monitoring, early detection of fires, and, in some cases, for the targeted application of small amounts of extinguishing agents. The advantages of UAV systems include precision, deployment in high-risk areas, and flexibility, while disadvantages include limited range and payload. In urban environments or near infrastructure, high-pressure water cannons are commonly deployed, allowing for intensive short-range suppression with high efficiency—but only if there is a sufficient water supply and safe unit access. Traditional firefighting methods, such as the deployment of ground firefighting units, heavy equipment, and aerial support, are often insufficient—especially during large-scale fires in hard-to-reach areas.

For these reasons, increasing attention is being devoted to innovative and non-standard firefighting methods, including the use of military technology, explosives, or specialized fire-suppression systems. These technologies offer new response capabilities compared to traditional approaches. Experiments involving explosive fire suppression via aerial munitions, conducted in several countries, have demonstrated this method’s potential and the need for further investigation. These experiments confirmed that explosions can interrupt fire propagation by generating shockwaves that consume the oxygen required for combustion. However, concerns have also been raised regarding safety and environmental impacts.

The use of artillery for wildfire suppression raises several questions—for example, Is it possible to eliminate wildfires using artillery munitions? What are the effects of such technology on the fire itself?

Artillery systems are designed to neutralize distant targets, and due to their ability to affect large areas, they may be applicable in wildfire containment. However, the use of artillery—like any other military technology—brings numerous technical, environmental, and legal challenges that must be thoroughly analyzed. The primary challenge lies in adapting artillery systems for civilian purposes. Standard artillery ammunition, primarily intended for destroying enemy targets, is not designed to extinguish fires and could potentially cause more harm than good. Major concerns include the risk of igniting secondary fire outbreaks or spreading burning debris over a wide area. It is also crucial to consider the potential threat to firefighters, civilians, animals, and property located near the fire. In terms of probability, secondary ignition can primarily be expected in shells with a higher explosive content. The likelihood of ignition ranges from very low to moderate depending on the shell’s design, the type of fuse used, and the characteristics of the target environment. In the case of conventional artillery shells, this risk can be significantly reduced by employing a blast effect—i.e., setting the fuse to detonate the shell after it penetrates the ground, thereby eliminating direct contact with air and vegetation. The same applies to the risk of secondary fragmentation, where the blast effect can reduce shrapnel dispersion by up to 80% [8]. Therefore, it is essential to maintain predetermined safety distances. However, it should be noted that in armed conflicts, directing fire in the vicinity of friendly positions is common practice. For specialized firefighting munitions that utilize controlled fragmentation and contain only a small amount of dispersal explosive, this risk is significantly lower, though not entirely eliminated. Thorough fire planning and strict adherence to safety protocols thus remain essential prerequisites for any potential deployment.

Therefore, a key issue is the development of specialized artillery munitions capable of carrying fire retardants or optimized to create shockwaves that can halt fire spread without causing additional damage. Experiments involving artillery in firefighting represent another step in the search for new approaches.

1.1. Types of Fires

Fires can be classified according to the type of burning material, which provides a foundation for understanding their characteristics, patterns of spread, and optimal suppression methods. This classification is essential for planning and executing effective interventions during emergency situations. Each type of fire presents specific challenges that require distinct approaches and technologies.

Wildfires rank among the most extensive and destructive natural disasters and represent one of the greatest risks to both the environment and human society. They are generally divided into surface fires, ground fires, and crown fires, each with its own distinct features. Surface fires involve the combustion of ground-level vegetation, such as grasses, shrubs, and fallen leaves. These fires typically spread slowly, yet they can affect vast areas, making them difficult to control—especially during dry seasons. Ground fires, which burn organic soil layers, such as peat bogs or tree root systems, are known for their long duration and difficult detection. These fires may smolder for months and can cause extensive ecological damage, including the release of large volumes of greenhouse gases. Crown fires, which spread through the canopy of trees, are typically associated with strong winds. They are among the most dangerous types of wildfires due to their rapid spread and intensity. Suppressing crown fires often requires the use of aerial firefighting resources because of the inaccessibility of the affected areas and the height of the flames. The environmental consequences of wildfires are devastating. They destroy natural ecosystems, reduce biodiversity, and degrade soil quality. Moreover, they release vast amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing further to climate change [9]. The ecological impacts are often long-term—soil erosion and loss of fertility affect landscape regeneration and the ability of the environment to retain water. The social and economic consequences include not only the loss of human lives and property, but also damage to infrastructure, disruption of agricultural production, forestry, and tourism [10]. Since infrastructure disruption is one of the most serious outcomes of natural disasters, the importance of tools for assessing the resilience of critical systems has grown—such as the CERA system, which enables the quantification of vulnerability to disasters and the proposal of effective safety, technical, and organizational measures. Smoke and fine particles released during fires also degrade air quality, posing health risks to the population [11].

Another important category is industrial fires, which involve the combustion of storage facilities, factories, or manufacturing plants. These incidents are often complicated by the presence of hazardous chemicals and petroleum products, increasing the risk of explosions and the spread of toxic substances [12].

Structural fires, affecting both residential and commercial buildings, represent another critical area. Fires in apartment buildings are often caused by human error, faulty electrical appliances, or negligence in handling open flames. While typical residential fires may be manageable with standard procedures, high-rise building fires present unique challenges. Difficult evacuation and limited access to upper floors require specialized equipment, such as aerial ladders and advanced sprinkler suppression systems.

Another category includes vehicle fires, which affect automobiles, trains, ships, and aircraft. These incidents often result from accidents or mechanical failures, with fire intensity increased by the presence of flammable fuels.

Special fires, such as those involving oil wells or gas storage facilities, are exceptionally intense and dangerous. These fires are frequently accompanied by explosions and extreme temperatures, making suppression efforts particularly challenging.

1.2. Non-Standard Firefighting Methods

Alternative approaches involving the deployment of various types of military equipment or the use of explosives represent innovative solutions for overcoming the limitations of traditional firefighting methods. These methods may be particularly effective in specific scenarios where conventional procedures fail.

As early as the 1960s, initial attempts were made to utilize alternative firefighting methods, including the use of fire-suppression guided missiles and bombs filled with specialized extinguishing agents. The objective of these experiments was to explore new methods for combating fires, particularly in remote or extremely hazardous areas where conventional ground crews or aerial units with water payloads proved insufficient. By the late-20th century, experts began focusing on certain explosive properties—such as oxygen depletion and the use of pressure waves—which could dynamically suppress fires. Historical experiments with controlled detonations demonstrated that directed explosions could be an effective tool for extinguishing certain types of fires. For instance, during the Gulf War in 1990–1991, retreating Iraqi forces set fire to hundreds of oil wells in Kuwait, resulting in massive ecological and economic damage. International response teams were deployed and, among other tactics, used explosives to generate shockwaves capable of extinguishing flames and sealing the wellheads to prevent further oil leaks. These experiments confirmed the potential of controlled explosions, but also highlighted the need for precision and technical expertise [13].

In 2018, Sweden was struck by large-scale wildfires that spread into the Älvdalen military training area. Due to unexploded ordnance and difficult terrain, the deployment of ground firefighting units was deemed too dangerous and ineffective. In response, the Swedish Air Force deployed two JAS-39 Gripen fighter jets equipped with laser-guided GBU-49 Paveway II bombs. A bomb dropped from an altitude of 3000 m detonated with meter-level accuracy, consuming the oxygen required for combustion and extinguishing flames within a radius of approximately 100 m through the generated shockwave [14].

Currently, the researchers from the Faculty of Technology at Tomas Bata University in Zlín are studying the possibility of suppressing surface wildfires through controlled explosions. The core principle is based on shockwaves, which travel faster than the speed of sound and generate forces that significantly exceed ambient pressure. A key aspect of this approach is the oxygen balance of the explosive—if it is negative, surrounding oxygen is consumed during the explosion, which can effectively inhibit fire propagation. Their research involved the placement and synchronized detonation of charges, such as anti-tank mines, in close proximity to the fire perimeter, where the shockwave has been shown to have the greatest impact. Further verification of this theory was conducted by the Institute of Mathematics and Physics at Brno University of Technology, which used mathematical modeling and computational simulations to analyze shockwave behavior. It was confirmed that the shockwave’s maximum destructive effect extended up to 15 m. Special attention was paid to wave interference, such as when two identical linear charges are detonated simultaneously. This configuration resulted in a doubling of energy at the point of wave convergence, thereby increasing suppression effectiveness and allowing for safer detonation from a greater distance. The models also indicated that placing charges in a circular configuration around the fire could be particularly effective for extinguishing fires involving gas emissions due to the compounded shockwave energy [15].

The recent research on fire protection has increasingly focused on the integration of advanced military technologies, such as drones equipped with fire-suppression grenades or modified military vehicles designed for firefighting applications. An example of an innovative solution is the Fire Extinguishing Rocket System developed by CASIC in China in 2015. Originally intended for high-rise building fires, its modularity suggests potential applications for other fire types. The launcher can fire up to 24 rockets within 72 s, and its sensors allow for accurate target engagement. Each rocket contains 3.6 kg of fire suppressant, capable of covering 60 m³ of fire. Thanks to its automated trajectory control and a built-in safety mechanism that minimizes the deviation risk, the system represents a highly sophisticated approach to remote fire suppression [16].

When evaluating the effectiveness of non-standard firefighting methods and selecting appropriate deployment tactics, mathematical decision-making tools can play an important role. For instance, the application of fuzzy logic to dynamically allocate targets has shown particular promise in situations where priorities cannot be clearly determined due to the lack of precise or stable input data—conditions commonly encountered in fast-spreading fires or unclear field environments [17].

2. Materials and Methods

Military technologies—such as artillery systems (howitzers, mortars, and rocket artillery)—offer new possibilities in the field of wildfire suppression.

One potential application involves the creation of firebreak corridors using conventional artillery ammunition, corresponding to the concept of backburning or even serving as a substitute for engineering modifications. This method consists of the deliberate targeting of vegetation and the creation of craters along predefined lines, thereby forming strips of land free of flammable material that can prevent further fire spread.

Another option is the use of artillery shells filled with specialized fire-suppressant agents, which could theoretically be used for targeted suppression in hard-to-reach areas or for establishing firebreaks in strategic zones.

The deployment of artillery in wildfire suppression represents not only an innovative approach to combating large-scale fires, but also raises important questions regarding the environmental impacts of using artillery munitions. The research assessing conventional artillery shells indicates that the highest concentrations of explosive residues are found in surface soil layers up to 2–3 cm deep within a radius of approximately 10 m [18]. In addition to explosive residues, military activity can also lead to the release of heavy metals, primarily due to unexploded ordnance [19]. These substances can remain in the soil for 2 to 5 years, with distribution patterns that are highly heterogeneous. This necessitates the use of specialized sampling approaches, such as multi-increment sampling techniques [20]. An additional insight is offered by studies analyzing the ecological effects of artillery fire, which propose innovative sampling methods for assessing soil contamination and evaluating the toxicity of specific types of munitions [21]. For these reasons, any deployment of artillery technology in civilian environments should be preceded by thorough environmental assessments, and, if necessary, followed by soil-and-water-quality monitoring in the affected area. When designing specialized fire-suppressant shells, it is also essential to consider environmentally friendly construction elements.

It is also essential to consider the legal limitations and regulatory frameworks related to the use of artillery systems for wildfire suppression. Under peacetime conditions, the deployment of such technology outside military training areas is subject to a strict approval process. This typically requires consent from security and emergency management authorities, political representatives, local governments, and other relevant stakeholders. The current procedures are time-consuming and, from the perspective of rapid deployment in emergency situations, insufficiently flexible, highlighting the need for legislative reform. In the context of the Czech Republic, this would primarily involve an amendment to Act No. 240/2000 Coll., on Crisis Management (the “Crisis Act”). At the same time, it is crucial that the use of military assets prioritizes safety and avoids disproportionate collateral damage. Any decision to deploy such means should therefore be based on expert assessments and the approval of competent authorities.

2.1. Creating Firebreaks Using Conventional Tube Artillery Ammunition

The accuracy of artillery fire is a critical factor not only in combat conditions, but also in unconventional scenarios, such as wildfire suppression. One of the key aspects is the dispersion size within the impact area. Dispersion is measured using probable deviations, which correspond to the statistical distribution of shell impacts in the target zone. These deviations follow a normal (Gaussian) distribution with a mean of zero, meaning that the shell impacts are symmetrically distributed around the center of the target. A probable deviation is defined as the margin of error that occurs as frequently as it does not—in other words, in 50% of all cases. To quickly estimate firing accuracy, artillery uses a dispersion scale, which helps evaluate the likely area of impact. Since some shells deviate more than others, these errors must be taken into account during fire correction procedures. Statistics show that approximately 50% of all random deviations fall within a zone equal to one probable deviation (from −1 to +1), which is crucial for targeted fire missions. Understanding the accuracy of shell impacts and minimizing errors through ballistic and meteorological corrections, along with continuous monitoring of impacts, can significantly improve artillery precision. For a quick estimation of these deviations, the dispersion scale illustrated in Figure 2 and the numerical expression of complete dispersion shown in

Table 1. Numerical representation of the rectangle of complete dispersion [22].

	2.00%	7.00%	16.00%	25.00%	25.00%	16.00%	7.00%	2.00%
2.00%	0.04	0.14	0.32	0.50	0.50	0.32	0.14	0.04
7.00%	0.14	0.49	1.12	1.75	1.75	1.12	0.49	0.14
16.00%	0.32	1.12	2.56	4.00	4.00	2.56	1.12	0.32
25.00%	0.50	1.75	4.00	6.25	6.25	4.00	1.75	0.50
25.00%	0.50	1.75	4.00	6.25	6.25	4.00	1.75	0.50
16.00%	0.32	1.12	2.56	4.00	4.00	2.56	1.12	0.32
7.00%	0.14	0.49	1.12	1.75	1.75	1.12	0.49	0.14
2.00%	0.04	0.14	0.32	0.50	0.50	0.32	0.14	0.04

are commonly used.

The principles of artillery fire against linear targets can be effectively applied in combating large-scale wildfires. In this context, artillery does not serve its traditional destructive function but is instead used for controlled fire suppression. In artillery practice, barrage fire is often used against linear targets [23]. This method allows for the precise and effective coverage of a designated strip of terrain. In the case of an extensive fire, the affected strip can be expanded using additional successive barrage fires. Such operations are conditional on active observations, typically conducted by artillery forward observers, drones, aircraft, or other reconnaissance means, with fire being adjusted until the desired effect on the target is achieved [24]. A similar approach can be applied during wildfire suppression, where a fire is produced until the required firebreak is created. However, for preliminary estimates of ammunition expenditure, Equation (1) can be used, in which fire is delivered at a predicted or required density. The number of rounds needed to produce fire with a specified density is calculated based on the dimensions of the target area, the duration of fire, and the standard consumption rate of rounds per hectare for the given caliber of artillery system, according to the following relationship:

$$C_f=(W_t\times D_t)\times t_f\times C_{ha}$$

(1)

where:

• C_f—Ammunition consumption (standard) for producing fire (fire strike) with the required density in pieces;
• (W_t and D_t)—Dimensions (area) of the fire strike sector in meters (hectares);
• t_f—Required duration of the fire strike in minutes;
• C_ha—Ammunition consumption standard per hectare in pieces per minute or per individual target [25].

The ammunition consumption per unit area per unit time is derived from both theoretical calculations and practical testing in real conditions. These standards are based on experience from regional armed conflicts, during which various target engagement methodologies and their effectiveness were tested [22]. For example, in the case of the 152 mm self-propelled howitzer ShKH DANA vz. 77, the standard rate is set at three-to-four rounds per hectare [rounds·min⁻¹].

The firing capabilities of an artillery unit, based on the maximum dimensions of the area covered, as shown in

Table 2. Maximum sectors for producing barrage fires for tube artillery [22].

Number of Guns		Sector Dimensions [m]
		Width of Sector	Depth of Sector
Platoon (4 guns)		200	150
Battery (8 guns)		400	150
Battalion	Two batteries (16 guns)	800	150
	Three batteries (24 guns)	1200	150

, serve as a baseline indicator. This allows for the determination of how large an area an artillery unit can cover without compromising the uniform distribution of shell impacts across the entire surface.

In the context of wildfire suppression, the principles of engaging group targets with a linear shape can be applied, where individual impacts follow a predefined line segment ranging from 200 to 1200 m in length. Similar to combat operations, where each gun fires at a designated aiming point (see Figure 3), it is also possible to determine the optimal impact distribution for artillery fire against wildfires in order to ensure full coverage along the fireline.

For open terrain fires, the method of fan-pattern fire can be used with a fan interval of I = 50 m, whereas in areas with dense vegetation, fire should be produced using a tighter fan interval of I = 25 m.

In the case of intense fires, the firing mode can be adjusted to engage multiple lines simultaneously (see Figure 4). This approach allows for the effective isolation of the fire and helps prevent uncontrolled spread. The distance between the lines should be in the range of 200 to 400 m, which corresponds to standard non-shifting barrage fire schemes used in combat operations. A critical factor in applying this method to firefighting is also the correct choice of fire direction and the placement of aiming points [25].

Under practical deployment conditions, it cannot be assumed that artillery fire will occur exclusively in a straight line. Artillery fire is planned based on the type of terrain and the specific characteristics of the target area. Firing data can be determined individually so that shell impacts form a functionally continuous firebreak. To achieve this objective, various types of fire missions are employed, allowing for adaptable deployment even in rugged or mountainous terrain.

To create firebreaks, it is advantageous to utilize the blast effect of artillery shells, which can generate a sufficiently deep and wide corridor after repeated fire missions [26]. A high-explosive shell, upon penetrating to a certain depth, detonates. The entire blast effect and its zones are illustrated in Figure 5. The explosive gases exert immense pressure on the surrounding medium, creating a cavity known as the compression zone (A). This pressure then expands rapidly outward from the detonation center, causing destruction within the crushing zone (B). Beyond this, in the shock zone (C), the pressure gradually diminishes, resulting only in ground tremors.

If a high-explosive shell detonates in the ground, it ejects surrounding soil, creating a crater, commonly referred to as a funnel. Some of the ejected earth typically falls back into the funnel, while the rest is scattered around its perimeter, forming an embankment known as a rim. In practical conditions, we typically assume medium-hard soil; with the use of a 152 mm shell, a funnel with a radius of 3 m and a depth of 1.5 m can be created [27].

2.2. Simulation-Based Analysis of the Effectiveness of Artillery Fire-Suppressant Munitions

When using traditional aerial firefighting methods, several disadvantages arise. Aircraft require time to refill retardant, reach the fire site, and release the suppressant in batches. Additionally, regular refueling is necessary, and in some cases, pilot rotation must be considered. For reference, extinguishing a 30-acre wildfire would require approximately 8.15 h of flight operations to deliver the 26,200 L of fire retardant needed to establish an effective firebreak [28].

To verify the hypothesis that artillery systems using fire-suppressant munitions could suppress fires as effectively—or even more effectively—than aircraft, modeling and process validation were carried out using simulation technologies, which are now widely applied in various fields, including environmental safety, transportation, and military research [29]. With increasing computational power, it is now possible to conduct highly detailed simulations of complex physical and chemical processes. Simulation models are used, for example, for predicting flood wave propagation, assessing the impact of laser radiation on air traffic, analyzing traffic load distribution, or evaluating the effectiveness of military munitions [30].

Every simulation model is by definition a simplified representation of reality, and its accuracy depends on the availability of input data and the model’s ability to account for relevant variables. Key limitations in modeling include:

• Environmental simplification—the model works with a limited number of parameters;
• Data collection—accurate prediction requires reliable data on the chemical properties of suppressants, meteorological conditions, and terrain characteristics;
• Computational complexity—accounting for all variables can be computationally demanding and is not always practical [31].

To obtain realistic simulation results, it was necessary to define key input parameters. The custom configuration designed for this study closely reflects the approach described in the U.S. patent by Boeing Co. No. US20160216091A1 (see Figure 6), in which an artillery shell is fired toward the fire, and a trigger mechanism releases the fire-retardant agent in mid-air [32].

The custom-designed configuration of the artillery fire-suppressant shell is intended to be compatible with standard NATO artillery systems (155 mm caliber) and is engineered to safely release the extinguishing agent at an optimal point, as illustrated in Figure 7. The proposed shell must meet several key requirements:

• Shell Body Material:
  • Resistance to high mechanical and thermal loads during firing;
  • Capability of controlled fragmentation or mechanical opening upon suppressant release;
  • Environmental safety and ability to undergo biodegradation or safe disintegration;
  • Low overall weight to ensure effective ballistic performance upon impact.

The shell body may be produced using advanced technical materials. The external casing is composed of a thin layer of AW-7075 T6 aluminum alloy (AlZnMgCu1.5), with a secondary internal layer made of aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), i.e., aluminum ceramic. The outer layer provides mechanical resistance during handling and the firing process, while the inner layer ensures controlled fragmentation of the shell casing during detonation.

2.

Trigger Mechanism and Explosive Charge:

• Variable activation mechanism for optimal timing of suppressant release;
• Sufficient explosive force to disperse the suppressant effectively, without destroying it;
• Safe handling during shell loading;
• Controlled dispersion pattern of the fire suppressant.

The release of the fire suppressant can be initiated by a specialized electric fuse, which enables activation based on the timing, altitude, or mechanical impact. This variability allows the shell to adapt to operational conditions and ensures efficient distribution of the extinguishing agent. In the simulation, a detonation altitude of eight meters above ground level was selected, allowing optimal dispersal before the suppressant reached the surface, thereby increasing its effectiveness. The use of proximity fuses allows for setting the explosion height above the ground or an obstacle. These fuses operate by assessing the distance to the target and can trigger detonation, for example, eight meters above the detected surface. In the case of engagement in tall forest stands with varying heights, premature or delayed detonation may occur. For such scenarios, it is possible to switch to a time fuse, where the shell’s initiation is set based on the expected time of flight. This time is calculated from firing tables and subsequently optimized by the artillery observer during the fire mission to ensure that detonation and dispersion of the suppressant occur at the optimal altitude. To maximize performance, the shell may be equipped with a dual-charge system. The initiating charge is composed of RDX (Cyclonite), chosen for its storage stability and reliable detonation. The main dispersal charge consists of Ammonal, a mixture of ammonium nitrate and 15–20% aluminum, which produces a strong pressure impulse. This type of charge ensures the effective fragmentation of the shell casing and uniform distribution of the suppressant over a wide area without excessive fragmentation.

3.

Type of Fire Suppressant:

• Highly effective suppressant or fire retardant;
• Chemically stable during storage and resistant to overload conditions;
• Good dispersal and adhesion properties.

In the case of an artillery shell, it is necessary to consider the volume available for the fire suppressant, which is limited by the internal space of the projectile. This constraint directly affects the extinguishing effectiveness and the overall dispersal range. Unlike conventional munitions, which contain a large quantity of explosives, the proposed configuration allows for a usable volume of up to 6150 cm³ dedicated to the suppressant agent. However, in the simulation, a 3–4% loss of material was assumed due to dispersal during the explosion, and the modeled effective volume was therefore set at 6000 cm³. To maximize suppression efficiency, the shell can be filled with different types of extinguishing compounds depending on the nature of the fire. Fire retardants, such as Phos-Chek, are particularly well-suited for creating firebreaks and reducing the rate of flame spread. Dry chemical powders, like ABC powder (ammonium phosphate), are designed for rapid flame knockdown and the interruption of combustion reactions. Another group of agents, Class A foams, are characterized by their quick heat absorption and ability to isolate the fire from oxygen, which enhances their performance in large-scale incidents. A further option includes enhanced water-based agents and gels, such as Barricade or Thermo-Gel, which provide more effective cooling of fire-affected areas and prolong the action time of the applied suppressant. For the purpose of the simulation, a powdered agent was selected as the most appropriate option due to its fine dispersal characteristics and good adhesion to burning surfaces.

From a practical perspective, it is essential to consider the cost–benefit ratio associated with the development and production of a specialized firefighting shell. Based on a preliminary consultation with STV GROUP a.s., the largest Czech manufacturer of artillery ammunition, the development of an entirely new type of shell—including the necessary certification and testing—is estimated to cost between USD 2 to 5 million. The subsequent unit price per shell could range approximately between USD 3000 and 6000, depending on the technological complexity of production and the scale of manufacturing. This value is comparable to the price of modern specialized munitions; for example, a basic unguided 155 mm shell typically costs around USD 3000.

Figure 7. Firefighting shell model for a 155 mm Howitzer (own elaboration, 2025). A—Electrically adjustable fuse. B—Explosive charge (initiating charge: RDX; main dispersal charge: Ammonal). C—Centering band. D—Shell body (outer layer: AW-7075; secondary layer: aluminum oxide). E—Driving band. F—Fire-suppressant payload.

Figure 7. Firefighting shell model for a 155 mm Howitzer (own elaboration, 2025). A—Electrically adjustable fuse. B—Explosive charge (initiating charge: RDX; main dispersal charge: Ammonal). C—Centering band. D—Shell body (outer layer: AW-7075; secondary layer: aluminum oxide). E—Driving band. F—Fire-suppressant payload.

To effectively use this type of shell, several operational conditions must be met. Artillery fire cannot be conducted without precise meteorological data and coordinated observation, which ensures accurate aiming and efficient delivery of the suppressant. Meteorological conditions in the deployment area are often unstable, particularly due to temperature fluctuations and shifting air currents, which complicate the prediction of suppressant dispersal. This necessitates the continuous evaluation of meteorological parameters and the application of ballistic corrections in real time. In addition, the safe and effective use of artillery systems requires the involvement of trained artillery forward observers or joint fire observer, who are capable of adjusting the fire in real time to ensure maximum suppression efficiency while minimizing unintended side effects [33]. An illustrative example of artillery being used to fight a wildfire is shown in Figure 8.

Another key prerequisite for the successful deployment of artillery assets is coordination with Fire Rescue Service (FRS) units. Selected FRS personnel must be capable of cooperating with military units, understanding the principles of fire support, and being familiar with military command and decision-making processes. Therefore, it is advisable to establish a specialized training course with a recommended duration in the range of 30–40 h; this time allocation reflects the experience gained from military personnel training in other technical areas. The course should cover basic terminology, fundamentals of ballistics and fire operations, map reading and coordinate transmission, safety procedures, communication and signal training, and practical command and control scenarios. Conversely, it is equally important to involve artillery observers, fire unit personnel, and command, control, and coordination elements in the training of Integrated Rescue System (IRS) components to ensure full interoperability.

In the context of firefighting interventions, modeling provides significant added value by enabling the prediction of fire-suppressant dispersal, which supports the optimization of resource deployment and minimization of risks for both response units and the civilian population.

To simulate the dispersion of fire suppressants deployed via artillery in the suppression of wildfires, the Czech simulation software TerEx version 3.1.0 (Figure 9) was used. This software, developed by the company T-SOFT a.s. (Prague, Czech Republic, was created as part of project 1H-PK2/35, funded by the Ministry of Industry and Trade of the Czech Republic (2005–2009). The tool was designed to assist governmental authorities, municipalities, and emergency response units in modeling the impact zones of hazardous events—such as explosions, chemical leaks, or fires—and in effectively defining areas for emergency planning and evacuation. The software was later expanded with computational modules SPREAD (for the simulation of particulate dispersion) and SPREAD EXPLOS (for modeling particle dispersion resulting from detonations). During its development, TerEx was validated through field experiments conducted under real conditions. In these tests, the dispersion of aerosol particles generated by explosions was verified through direct concentration measurements within defined zones. A comparison of historical field data with current simulation results confirmed the reliability and accuracy of the model [30].

From the perspective of simulation parameters, the model was configured to calculate the effect of a single gun and a single round, even though in real-world deployment, at least an artillery platoon would typically be used. In simulating the dispersion of individual rounds and salvos, it is important to recognize that a single shell cannot be expected to achieve complete suppression within its point of impact. Therefore, a wider suppression area is preferred, requiring three-to-four impacts to achieve optimal effectiveness. When using proximity-fused shells, the dispersion pattern is slightly altered and becomes significantly broader than that of shells equipped with conventional impact fuses. Thus, when employing artillery munitions for firefighting purposes, it is essential to consider this dispersion effect and the associated safety aspects. Experimental and simulation-based analyses allow for the definition of effect zones, which determine the effective range of the suppressant payload and the potential risk level for both firefighting units and civilians.

Using the SPREAD EXPLOS module (Figure 10), which is designed for modeling explosion-induced dispersion, a fire suppressant was modeled in the form of organic dust in solid state. The primary input parameters included the mass of the dispersed agent, calculated based on the maximum volume of 6 150 cm³ available in a 155 mm shell. Depending on the type of fire suppressant selected, a conversion to mass [kg] was performed. The main dispersal charge was set as an “unknown blast”, corresponding in this case to Ammonal, with a mass of 0.22 kg. Additional critical parameters—such as wind speed, meteorological stability, and surface type in the fire-affected area—were also defined to ensure optimal computational accuracy. This configuration was used to simulate the dispersion pattern of the suppressant, with the aim of determining the effective coverage zone of powdered payload munitions and their associated safety radius.

The simulation results (Figure 11) indicate that the dispersal pattern of the fire suppressant can be divided into four main zones:

• Explosive zone (2 m)—The immediate area of the detonation with the highest explosive force and intensity.
• High-concentration zone (10 m) –The zone containing the highest concentration of suppressant, where maximum extinguishing efficiency is expected. This area ensures direct coverage of the target zone, enabling rapid fire knockdown.
• Low-concentration zone (34 m)—A surrounding area where the suppressant is present in lower concentrations. While its direct extinguishing effect is significantly reduced, it may still provide supplementary cooling effects that support fire containment.
• Danger zone (159 m)—The outermost zone, where the suppressant, or the effects of the explosion, may pose potential risks to personnel, equipment, or the surrounding environment. This could be due to chemical toxicity, mechanical shock, or secondary projectiles. It is recommended that the evacuation area extends to a radius of 159 m for safety reasons.

Figure 11. Blast and dispersal zone simulation of fire-suppressant munition in the SPREAD EXPLOS module —zone diameters in meters (own elaboration, 2025).

Figure 11. Blast and dispersal zone simulation of fire-suppressant munition in the SPREAD EXPLOS module —zone diameters in meters (own elaboration, 2025).

The simulation described above allowed for the definition of zones indicating the effective range of suppressant munitions as well as the potential risk levels for both firefighting personnel and civilian populations. The dispersion of fire suppressants is a complex process influenced by a wide range of variables, which can significantly affect not only the spatial distribution of the suppressant, but also its overall effectiveness in fire suppression [34]. The key factors influencing fire-suppressant dispersion include:

• Physicochemical properties of the agent:

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  Volatility and reactivity;

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  Capillarity (positive/negative);

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  Boiling point.

• Projectile characteristics:

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  Internal volume and fill capacity;

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  Parameters of the release opening (size, position).

• Meteorological conditions:

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  Air temperature;

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  Vertical air movement;

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  Wind direction and speed;

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  Air humidity.

• Environmental factors:

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  Terrain ruggedness;

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  Vegetation cover;

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  Surface type.

• Fire characteristics:

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  Type (surface, crown, ground fire);

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  Intensity (low/medium/high);

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  Spread rate;

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  Temperature profile of the fire core;

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  Flame height and smoke density.

3. Results

Based on the simulation and when scaled up to a full artillery battery of eight guns, a surface area of approximately 600–650 m² can be covered using the first salvo. When utilizing such a battery, capable of sustaining a firing rate in the range of 3–4 rounds per minute per gun, a significant acceleration in suppressant delivery can be achieved. For instance, if the battery operates in a cycle of 5 min of fire followed by a 5 min pause, up to 160 rounds can be fired per cycle (8 guns × 3–4 rounds/min × 5 min = 120–160 rounds). If each shell delivers 6000 cm³ of fire suppressant, the upper threshold of 160 rounds corresponds to 0.96 m³ of suppressant delivered per cycle. The total time required for delivering the fire suppressant can be further reduced—by half with two batteries, or by up to two-thirds when deploying a full artillery battalion. Fire missions aimed at suppressing wildfires can be conducted in a pattern similar to that illustrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4. Furthermore, the use of standard artillery munitions—designed to create firebreaks—can be combined with suppressant-filled shells to either slow the fire’s spread or directly extinguish flames in affected areas. This approach enables comprehensive coverage of the fire zone and targeted disruption of fire propagation. It is particularly well-suited for extreme conditions, such as rapidly advancing wildfires. A major advantage of artillery is its low dependence on weather conditions and the possibility of deployment at night or under poor visibility conditions.

The use of artillery systems for wildfire suppression represents a feasible approach that could significantly expand current response capabilities. Artillery equipped with standard or specialized fire-suppressant munitions enables the creation of firebreaks and the direct suppression of active fires. Modeling in TerEx software provides valuable insights for optimizing suppression strategies. Simulations of fire-suppressant munitions confirm the effectiveness of both solid and liquid agents, although liquid mixtures demonstrate a slightly worse performance. Based on the conducted simulations, the deployment of such specialized shells can contribute to effective fire containment and support firefighting units in action. Artillery offers the possibility of remote firefighting operations, allowing units to operate outside hazardous zones, thereby reducing the risk to personnel.

4. Discussion and Conclusions

From a tactical perspective, artillery units should not be regarded as a standalone tool but rather as part of a broader wildfire-suppression system. They should always operate in coordination with conventional firefighting forces, particularly in combination with direct aerial firefighting, which would significantly accelerate the suppression of large-scale wildfires and help mitigate potential adverse effects of artillery use. For this reason, the presence of a joint fire observer (JFO) onsite is crucial to ensure coordination between both components, maximize operational effectiveness, and maintain strict safety protocols.

One of the emerging tools that can enhance the realism and effectiveness of artillery deployment is machine learning (ML). This method enables systems to improve automatically based on data, without the need for explicit programming for each individual task. It involves a process in which algorithms analyze large volumes of input data, identify patterns, and make decisions, predictions, or classifications based on those patterns [35]. With the increasing level of automation in artillery systems, which fall under the category of C4FS (Command, Control, Communication, Computers, Fire Support), basic machine learning techniques are being applied to address complex fire support management tasks. These systems are capable of processing large volumes of data from various sensors and effectors, automatically selecting suitable firing positions, calculating firing solutions with consideration of external and internal ballistic influences, and planning the use of optimal types of ammunition. In the context of wildfire suppression, these systems could be extended with machine learning modules that enable, for example, the prediction of optimal target areas, adaptive trajectory control in response to changing meteorological conditions in the fire zone, or the dynamic allocation of effectors and sensors based on the fire’s temporal and spatial development.

In the case of large-scale forest fires, the time efficiency of the response plays a crucial role, as rapid action can significantly influence the extent of damage and the success of fire suppression. Although military equipment is generally less operationally flexible compared to conventional firefighting units and requires a longer activation time, this disadvantage can be significantly mitigated through the military logistics command and control system [36]. The deployment of mobile artillery systems, which can be quickly transported not only by road and rail but also by air, allows for their placement even in hard-to-reach terrain. Under challenging conditions, the ability to perform aerial transport becomes particularly important—for example, the U.S. M777 155 mm system is designed for transport as an underslung load by CH-47 Chinook, CH-53, or MV-22 Osprey helicopters. This capability significantly accelerates the deployment of artillery assets without the need for lengthy and complex ground transport. The deployment of artillery in emergency situations depends on a functioning logistics support system, which includes not only transport but also technical support, repairs, resupply, and coordination with other components of the Integrated Rescue System (IRS). Military transport is integrated into the state infrastructure and utilizes both civilian and military assets. During standard deployments, a so-called “transportation plan” is activated, enabling the relocation of military units to their designated areas. Units carry most of their equipment in organic vehicles, while additional essential supplies—including extra ammunition, fuel, medical materials, etc.—are provided by supply units from central depots or through contracts with civilian suppliers. During operations, technical support also plays a key role in maintaining the operability of weapon systems. This includes assigned repair capacities, stationary repair facilities, and dedicated recovery units for evacuating damaged equipment. To ensure effective cooperation with civilian emergency services, interoperability, unified command rules, and accurate information sharing are essential. The logistics network must be capable of responding flexibly to the evolving situation and adapting to the current needs in the field. These crisis logistics approaches can shorten the activation window for artillery units and enable their deployment in the early stages of a fire. This is often the time when it is critical to quickly create firebreaks or prevent the spread of fire to strategically important areas [37].

Although this concept demonstrates considerable potential, further research is re-quired to verify its practical application. Following the current findings, future research will focus on several key areas necessary for the practical implementation of this method. The first priority is the legal framework for conducting artillery fire from areas outside of military training zones, which will need to be thoroughly analyzed and potentially amended through legislative changes. In parallel, the development and testing of a functional prototype of specialized fire-suppressant munitions will be undertaken, with a strong emphasis on assessing their environmental impact—particularly on soil and water resources in the affected areas. A third research direction will address logistical challenges, including the rapid transport of artillery systems to hard-to-reach regions, their deployment in coordination with other emergency response forces, and the definition of optimal command and control procedures during combined firefighting operations. The ultimate goal of these steps is to lay the groundwork for the creation of a test consortium that would enable practical validation of the proposed solutions and a pilot deployment under real-world conditions.

Given the growing threats associated with wildfires and climate change, it is essential to promote innovative approaches that could effectively complement or extend traditional firefighting methods. The integration of military technologies into crisis management represents a promising area of research with the potential to significantly improve operational effectiveness. Achieving this goal will require closer cooperation between military and civilian research institutions, facilitating the development of specialized firefighting technologies. In addition, military units should be involved in the training of firefighting forces to enable the coordinated use of artillery fire in emergency situations. At the same time, it is appropriate to engage specially trained fire service personnel in the training of artillery forward observers, who would be taught deep learning-based methods used in these operations—particularly for fire detection and mapping, intensity estimation, and spread prediction.

In the context of using artillery for wildfire suppression, it is increasingly important to also develop alternative and long-term sustainable solutions. The current ecological research highlights the benefits of environmentally friendly approaches that not only reduce fire risk, but also contribute to the protection and restoration of ecosystems. A combination of several measures—including controlled burning, mechanical and biochemical vegetation treatments, and the planting of green fire barriers composed of species with a high leaf-water content—offers a viable path toward reducing fire intensity and spread while enhancing the ecological resilience of the landscape [38].