Post-Earthquake Fires (PEFs) in the Built Environment: A Systematic and Thematic Review of Structural Risk, Urban Impact, and Resilience Strategies
Abstract
1. Introduction
Previous Studies
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Research Design and Methodological Framework
2.2. Research Strategy and Database Selection
2.3. Screening and Selection Process
- Inclusion: Peer-reviewed journal articles and selected peer-reviewed conference proceedings in English, indexed in the Web of Science Core Collection, published between 1999 and 2024, with a primary focus on post-earthquake fire dynamics, structural performance, urban risk, or emergency response.
- Exclusion: Articles not available in full-text, duplicates, or lacking relevance to the defined research questions.
2.4. Analytical Tools
2.5. Methodological Transparency and Reproducibility
3. Results
3.1. Analysis of Post-Earthquake Fire Research: Trends in Publications, Authors, Countries, and Journals
3.2. Distribution of Methodologies Employed in the Reviewed Studies
3.3. Thematic Analysis
3.3.1. Structural Systems and Materials
3.3.2. Urban-Scale Infrastructure and Planning
3.3.3. Fire Behavior and Resistance
3.3.4. Multi-Hazard and Cascading Effects
3.3.5. Heritage Structures
3.3.6. AI and Sensor Technology
3.3.7. Behavioral, Social, and Economic Impacts
3.4. Multi-Causal Origins of PEFs and Their Relationship with Structural Vulnerabilities
3.4.1. Building Materials and Fire Resistance
3.4.2. Electrical Systems and Sparking
3.4.3. Infrastructure Damage and Gas Leaks
3.4.4. Open Flame Sources and Household Accidents
3.4.5. Water Supply Cutoff and Firefighting Difficulties
3.4.6. Other Causes and Secondary Events
3.5. Fire Control Approaches
3.5.1. Technological Approaches
3.5.2. Structural- and Material-Based Approaches
3.5.3. Monitoring and Early Warning Systems
3.5.4. Community Awareness and Education
3.5.5. Infrastructure Enhancements and Networks
3.5.6. Firefighting and Emergency Response Approaches
3.5.7. Simulation and Risk Assessment Models
3.5.8. Urban Design and Planning
3.5.9. Policy and Collaborative Approaches
3.5.10. Structural Damage and Fire Control
4. Discussions
4.1. Gaps in Knowledge and Areas for Future Research
4.2. Integrated Multi-Hazard Models
4.3. Behavioral and Psychosocial Dimensions
4.4. Firefighting in Structurally Damaged Buildings
4.5. Smart Infrastructures and Sensor-Based Detection Systems
4.6. Policy Integration and Multi-Agency Governance
4.7. Community Engagement in High-Risk Areas
4.8. Urban Fabric and Spatial Fire Dynamics
5. Conclusions and Research Implications
5.1. Methodological Landscape
5.2. Existing Knowledge Gaps
5.3. Governance and Urban Planning
5.4. Contributions and Limitations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AI | Artificial intelligence |
AHP | Analytic hierarchy process |
CFDST | Concrete-filled double-skin tube |
CFST | Concrete-filled steel tube |
GIS | Geographic information systems (GIS)-based simulations |
FEA | Finite element analysis |
FEM | Finite element modeling |
MCDM | Multi-criteria decision-making |
PEFs | Post-earthquake fires |
PRISMA | Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses |
RC | Reinforced concrete |
SMART | Sensor monitoring and real-time technologies |
TOPSIS | Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution |
UAV | Unmanned aerial vehicle |
UNDRO | United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator |
YOLOv3 | You Only Look Once version 3 (deep learning model for real-time object detection) |
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Location | Country | Date | Earthquake-Induced Destruction Rate | Fire-Induced Destruction Rate | Number of Destroyed Buildings Homes | Death Toll | Number of Homeless People | Response Time | Fire Control Challenges |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
San Francisco | USA | 1906 | 10–20% | 80–90% | 28,000 buildings | 3000 | 250,000 | 3 days | No water supply, gas line damage |
Great Kantō | Japan | 1923 | 20% | 77% | 447,000 homes | 140,000 | 1,900,000 | 2–3 days | Strong winds spread fires, no water supply |
Loma Prieta | USA | 1989 | 10% | 90% | 960 homes | 62 | 12,000 | 24 h | Water supply interrupted, limited firefighting support |
Northridge | USA | 1994 | 15% | 60% | 3700 homes | 57 | 30,000 | 48 h | Water supply is down, infrastructure damage |
Kobe | Japan | 1995 | 50% | 12% | 142 major fires | 5500 | 1,000,000 | 1–2 days | Limited water supply, no electrical infrastructure |
Lisbon | Portugal | 1755 | Unknown | 0.8 | Unknown | 60,000~ 100,000 | Unknown | 6 days | Fires spread uncontrollably for six days |
Messina | Italy | 1908 | 70% | Limited | 100,000 homes | 100,000 | 150,000 | 24 h | Tsunami aftermath triggered fires |
Hawke’s Bay | New Zealand | 1931 | 10% | 80% | 960 homes | 256 | 100,000 | 48 h | Water supply damaged, fire spread uncontrollably |
Tohoku | Japan | 2011 | 20% | 50% | Approx. 500 homes | 20,000 | 200,000 | 3 days | Tsunami aftermath caused fuel fires at Chiba refinery |
Primary Methodological Approach | Description/Examples | Number of Studies |
---|---|---|
Thermo-Structural Analysis (FE-Based) | ABAQUS, Open Sees, SAFIR, etc. | 26 |
Numerical Simulation/Finite Element Modeling (FEM) | Full-scale or component-level fire tests, shake table + furnace testing | 11 |
Experimental Studies | Validation and calibration of models using test results | 6 |
Combined Numerical and Experimental Methods | Thematic reviews, comparison of design codes | 5 |
Literature Review/Conceptual Analysis | Monte Carlo, Bayesian inference, fragility curve generation | 7 |
Statistical/Probabilistic Approaches | Fire spread, infrastructure vulnerability, GIS-based urban risk mapping | 4 |
Geospatial/Urban-Scale Modeling | AHP, TOPSIS, Delphi methods | 1 |
Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) | YOLOv3, smart sensor-based fire detection systems | 1 |
Artificial Intelligence/Image Processing | Post-earthquake individual fire perception and decision-making | 1 |
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Kürüm Varolgüneş, F.; Varolgüneş, S. Post-Earthquake Fires (PEFs) in the Built Environment: A Systematic and Thematic Review of Structural Risk, Urban Impact, and Resilience Strategies. Fire 2025, 8, 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8060233
Kürüm Varolgüneş F, Varolgüneş S. Post-Earthquake Fires (PEFs) in the Built Environment: A Systematic and Thematic Review of Structural Risk, Urban Impact, and Resilience Strategies. Fire. 2025; 8(6):233. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8060233
Chicago/Turabian StyleKürüm Varolgüneş, Fatma, and Sadık Varolgüneş. 2025. "Post-Earthquake Fires (PEFs) in the Built Environment: A Systematic and Thematic Review of Structural Risk, Urban Impact, and Resilience Strategies" Fire 8, no. 6: 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8060233
APA StyleKürüm Varolgüneş, F., & Varolgüneş, S. (2025). Post-Earthquake Fires (PEFs) in the Built Environment: A Systematic and Thematic Review of Structural Risk, Urban Impact, and Resilience Strategies. Fire, 8(6), 233. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8060233