Forest Fires, Vulnerability, and Exposure: The Evaluation of What Was Salvaged in the 2023 Fire in Tenerife (Spain)
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Fire Characterization and Management
2.2. Diagnosis of Vulnerability and Exposure of Buildings Surrounding the Urban–Forest Interface
2.2.1. Structural Vulnerability Index (SVI)
2.2.2. Accessibility Exposure Index (AEI)
2.2.3. Territorial Exposure Index (TEI)
2.2.4. Vegetation Exposure Index (VEI)
2.2.5. Fire-Affected Vegetation Index (FAVI)
2.3. Assessment of the Value of the Salvaged Assets
2.3.1. Delimitation of Fire Spreading Sectors
2.3.2. Estimation of the Economic Value of the Salvaged
3. Results
3.1. Building Vulnerability and Exposure Analysis
3.1.1. Structural Vulnerability Index (SVI) Results
3.1.2. Accessibility Exposure Index (AEI) Results
3.1.3. Territorial Exposure Index (TEI) Results
3.1.4. Vegetation Exposure Index (VEI) Results
3.1.5. Fire-Affected Vegetation Index (FAVI) Results
3.1.6. Wildfire Risk Building Vulnerability and Exposure Index (WR-BVEI)
3.2. Estimated Value of the Salvaged
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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CRITERIA | VULNERABILITY AND EXPOSURE EVALUATION | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Low (0.5) | Moderate (1) | High (1.5) | Very High (2) | |
STRUCTURAL VULNERABILITY INDEX (SVI) | ||||
Structural material | Non-flammable (stone, brick, cement, etc.) | Low flammability (e.g., fireproof woods) | Moderately flammable (wood, rugs, etc.) | Highly flammable (cardboard, plastics, etc.) |
Blinds or shutters | Presence of blinds or shutters | - | - | Absence of blinds or shutters |
Age of buildings | 2000 or later | 1976–1999 | 1951–1975 | 1950 or earlier |
ACCESSIBILITY EXPOSURE INDEX (AEI) | ||||
Type of access road to the buildings | Bidirectional | - | One-way | Dead-end |
Condition of the access road network to buildings | Excellent access road network | Good access road network | Acceptable access road network | Degraded access road network |
Distance between buildings and extinguishing means | <5 min | <15 min | <30 min | >30 min |
TERRITORIAL EXPOSURE INDEX (TEI) | ||||
Slope of the land | Buildings located in areas (radius of 100 m) with a slope of 10° or less | Buildings located in areas (radius of 100 m) with a slope between 10° and 15° | Buildings located in areas (radius of 100 m) with a slope between 15° and 25°. | Buildings located in areas (radius of 100 m) with a slope of more than 25° |
Proximity to ravines | Buildings located more than 200 m from a ravine | Buildings located between 100 and 200 m from a ravine | Buildings located between 50 and 100 m from a ravine | Buildings located less than 50 m from a ravine |
Type of settlement around the urban–forest interface | Very dense population | Dense population | Dispersed population | Isolated population |
VEGETATION EXPOSURE INDEX (VEI) | ||||
Distance between buildings and forested areas | >50 m | 30–50 m | 10–30 m | <10 m |
Proximity between buildings and tree canopies | >30 m | 10–30 m | 2–10 m | <2 m |
Presence of potentially pyrophytic vegetation (fuel models with fast and easy propagation). | No pyrophytic vegetation within a radius of 100 m. | No pyrophytic vegetation within a radius of 50–100 m. | With pyrophytic vegetation in a radius of 30–50 m. | With pyrophytic vegetation within 30 m of the building |
FIRE-AFFECTED VEGETATION INDEX (FAVI) | ||||
Presence of vegetation affected by the fire in the vicinity of buildings. | No surrounding vegetation affected | Affected vegetation within a radius of 200 m | Affected vegetation within the property | Affected vegetation in the immediate vicinity of the building |
WR-BVEI Value | Vulnerability and Exposure Categories |
---|---|
≤10 | Very low |
10–12.5 | Low |
12.5–15 | Moderate |
15–17.5 | High |
≥17.5 | Very high |
Element | Explanation | Value |
---|---|---|
Forest area | Economic production of forests (wood, beekeeping, livestock, etc.), excluding recreational and environmental activities [61] | EUR 2125/ha |
Investment in forest fire emergency preparedness | Public investment for the prevention and extinction of forest fires, protection of wild flora and fauna, creation and maintenance of forest roads, forest research, etc. [24] | EUR 123/ha |
CO2 capture | Cost per CO2 captured. Only the value of live standing wood is included. It is calculated as follows: 1.18 tCO2/m3 × (ha of conifers salvaged × m3 of conifers per hectare) × market price [24,62,63] | EUR 8563/ha |
Buildings | Value of the real estate market in the third quarter of 2023, divided by two for buildings smaller than 40 m2 or of a provisional nature and by four for sheds and warehouses [64] | EUR 1679/m2 |
Land erosion | Average cost of land lost due to forest fire [65] | EUR 5.82/ha |
Agricultural production | Average price of agricultural land in the Canary Islands [66] | EUR 83,299/ha |
Infrastructure and land for primary sector activities | Average price of artificial surfaces used for primary sector activities, such as agriculture, livestock, forestry, mining, or fish farming. Includes infrastructure and associated land but not agricultural or livestock plots directly [67] | EUR 2.65/ha |
Recreational | Average cost of artificial surfaces destined to non-productive services, such as commerce, hotels, offices, and leisure, provided they are outside the urban fabric and are easily identifiable. Includes recreational parks, amusement parks, zoos, resorts, and campgrounds [67] | EUR 1152.71/ha |
Wood production | Average cost of areas under logging and wood processing [67] | EUR 1.37/ha |
Conservation of biological diversity | Public investment per hectare for the protection and preservation of ecosystems and species [67] | EUR 15.81/ha |
Water supply | Average cost of infrastructure dedicated to water treatment, purification, storage, and distribution [67] | EUR 793.8/ha |
Type | Estimated Salvaged Assets | Value | Estimated Damaged Assets | Estimated Loss Value (EUR) | Estimated Salvaged Value (EUR) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Buildings | |||||
Housing | 407 | EUR 1679/m2 | 50,465 m2 | 1,062,744 | 25,417,707 |
Housing <40 m2 or temporary | 268 | EUR 420/m2 | 10,665 m2 | 411,876 | 1,342,910 |
Other (camping, warehouses, etc.) | 257 | EUR 210/m2 | 22,475 m2 | 334,593 | 1,414,998 |
Subtotal | EUR 1,809,213 | EUR 28,175,615 | |||
Environment | |||||
Environmental | 9119 ha | EUR 2125/ha | 11,965 ha | 25,425,625 | 19,377,875 |
Land erosion | 9119 ha | EUR 6/ha | 11,965 ha | 69,636 | 53,073 |
Investment in forest fire emergency preparedness | 9119 ha | EUR 123/ha | 11,965 ha | 1,471,695 | 1,121,637 |
Conservation of biological diversity | 9119 ha | EUR 15.8/ha | 11,965 ha | 189,167 | 144,171 |
Water supply | 9119 ha | EUR 793.8/ha | 11,965 ha | 9,497,817 | 7,238,662 |
Subtotal | EUR 36,653,940 | EUR 27,935,419 | |||
Productive | |||||
Wood production | 9119 ha | EUR 1.37/ha | 11,965 ha | 16,392 | 12,493 |
Infrastructure and land for primary sector activities (without agricultural or livestock plots) | 9119 ha | EUR 6.65/ha | 11,965 ha | 31,707 | 24,165 |
Crops | 511,934 ha | EUR 83,299/ha | 109,928 ha | 9,157,059 | 42,640,758 |
Recreational | 9119 ha | EUR 1152.71/ha | 11,965 ha | 13,676,904 | 10,511,562 |
Subtotal | EUR 22,882,062 | EUR 53,188,978 | |||
Immaterial | |||||
CO2 | 9119 ha | EUR 8563/ha | 11,965 ha | EUR 102,456,295 | EUR 78,085,997 |
TOTAL | EUR 163,801,509 | EUR 187,386,008 |
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Correa, J.; Boulat, L.; Dorta, P. Forest Fires, Vulnerability, and Exposure: The Evaluation of What Was Salvaged in the 2023 Fire in Tenerife (Spain). Fire 2025, 8, 186. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8050186
Correa J, Boulat L, Dorta P. Forest Fires, Vulnerability, and Exposure: The Evaluation of What Was Salvaged in the 2023 Fire in Tenerife (Spain). Fire. 2025; 8(5):186. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8050186
Chicago/Turabian StyleCorrea, Jordan, Lucie Boulat, and Pedro Dorta. 2025. "Forest Fires, Vulnerability, and Exposure: The Evaluation of What Was Salvaged in the 2023 Fire in Tenerife (Spain)" Fire 8, no. 5: 186. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8050186
APA StyleCorrea, J., Boulat, L., & Dorta, P. (2025). Forest Fires, Vulnerability, and Exposure: The Evaluation of What Was Salvaged in the 2023 Fire in Tenerife (Spain). Fire, 8(5), 186. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire8050186