Next Article in Journal
Laser-Based Additive Manufacturing of Alkali Borosilicate Glass Powder: Influence of Laser-Beam Properties on Component Quality
Previous Article in Journal
Spot Melting Strategy for Contour Melting in Electron Beam Powder Bed Fusion
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
JMMP
Volume 9
Issue 9
10.3390/jmmp9090304
jmmp-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Effect of Heat Treatment on High-Temperature Tribological Behavior of WE54 Alloy: An Experimental Study

by
Sudharsan Saravanan
1,
Aditya Raman Hattimare
1,
Atharva Bharat Mahadik
1,
Arnav Singh
1,
Uttamchand Narendra Kumar
1 and
A. Raja Annamalai
2,*
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India
2
Centre for Innovative Manufacturing Research, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore 632014, India
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9(9), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9090304
Submission received: 25 July 2025 / Revised: 2 September 2025 / Accepted: 3 September 2025 / Published: 5 September 2025
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

This study examines the high-temperature tribological behavior of WE54 Mg alloy under various conditions: as-cast, solution-treated (T4), age-hardened (T6), and secondary aged (S.A). Wear tests were performed using a pin-on-disc setup, applying a normal load of 10 N, with a sliding velocity of 1 m/s, a sliding distance of 1000 m, and temperatures from 25 °C to 150 °C. Responses such as the coefficient of friction and volumetric wear rate were recorded. The results indicate that heat treatment significantly influences the wear behavior of the WE54 alloy. The lowest volumetric wear rate (8.16 ± 1.47 mm3) and wear coefficient (0.112 ± 0.02) occurred in the as-cast sample at 100 °C, while the highest volumetric wear rate (14.68 ± 1.59 mm3) and wear coefficient (0.171 ± 0.02) were found in the S.A. sample at 150 °C. Surface characterization of worn samples was conducted using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The wear mechanisms identified include abrasive wear, oxidative wear, and delamination across all conditions, regardless of temperature. The elevated volumetric wear rate at 150 °C, irrespective of the sample condition, is attributed to oxidation and thermal softening of the material.

1. Introduction

Due to rising fuel costs, the aviation and automobile industries have been eager to reduce vehicle weight in recent years. Aluminum (Al) and its alloys are the most preferred materials. With the development of lightweight materials, many researchers are drawn to magnesium (Mg) and its alloys due to their low density, good strength-to-weight ratio, damping properties, high specific strength, stiffness, castability, and machinability [1,2,3,4,5]. Although Mg and its alloys have some advantages, their use has been limited by their highly reactive nature, relatively lower strength, poor ductility, fatigue strength, creep resistance, corrosion resistance, and wear properties compared to aluminum and its alloys [6]. Commercial Mg alloys (AZ and AM series) have been developed to address these limitations. However, the magnesium matrix composites have better hardness and wear resistance than the Mg alloys. This is important in aerospace, automotive, defense, and electronics applications due to their unique properties mentioned earlier. In the current automotive industry, Mg alloy/composites are used in powertrain components (gearbox cases), automotive brakes, and engine parts (pistons and cylinder bores) [7]. In these applications, relative sliding motion between components subjected to friction and wear causes material loss [8,9,10]. These components operate at elevated temperatures. However, AZ and AM alloy series are practical only up to temperatures of 110 °C to 125 °C due to poor mechanical properties, creep resistance, and lower thermal stability at higher temperatures [11,12]. The addition of rare earth (RE) elements such as Ce, Gd, Nd, Y, and Ca can enhance the mechanical properties and creep resistance at elevated temperatures by forming stable precipitates [13,14,15,16,17,18]. Therefore, adding rare earth materials is believed to improve wear resistance.
Over the past decade, various efforts have been made to study the wear and friction behaviors of non-rare-earth and rare-earth-based Mg alloys. Adding Yttrium to the Mg-3Al alloy enhances its wear resistance by forming the Al2Y intermetallic phase [19]. Similarly, adding Gd to the Mg-xGd-3Y-0.5Zr alloy increases wear resistance, with Mg-6Gd-3Y-0.5Zr showing a 24% improvement at 200 °C [20]. Patel et al. [4] reported that the wear resistance of the GW44 alloy is lower than that of GW22 at both room and elevated temperatures (250 °C). The Mg-6Gd-0.6Zr alloy exhibits a reduced volumetric wear rate at 225 °C due to the formation of a dense oxide layer [21]. Wang et al. [22] studied the wear behavior of Mg-10.1Gd-1.4Y-0.4Zr under different sliding speeds and load conditions, discovering that severe oxidative wear dominates at lower velocities (0.2 to 0.5 m/s). In contrast, severe plastic deformation prevails at higher velocities (0.8 to 4 m/s)—similarly, An et al. [23] examined the tribological behavior of Mg-Zn-Y alloys under various loads and temperatures. Age-hardened Mg GZ31K alloy demonstrates a lower volumetric wear rate at 200 N compared to 100 N due to the formation of a work-hardening layer on the surface [24]. Xu et al. [25] investigated the impact of severe plastic deformation on the wear behavior of the Mg-Gd-Y-Zn-Zr alloy, finding a positive correlation between wear resistance and the degree of deformation. The age-hardening process improves the wear resistance of Mg-11Y-5Gd-2Zn alloy by forming the Mg12Y1Zn1 phase [26]. Conversely, Hu et al. [27] examined the age-hardened Mg-10Gd-3Y-0.4Zr alloy exhibited a higher volumetric wear rate than the cast alloy, mainly due to eutectic phases present in the as-cast condition. Although many studies have explored different rare-earth magnesium alloys, the high-temperature wear behavior of the Mg WE54 alloy has not yet been reported. The as-cast WE54 alloy has a strength of 173 MPa, while the peak-aged alloy (at 250 °C for 16 h) reaches 243 MPa [28]. Barylski et al. [29] examined the age-hardened WE54 alloy, which shows higher hardness because of a larger volume fraction of intermetallic phases. Somekawa et al. [30] investigated the wear behavior of the Mg-Y alloy and reported that the wear mechanism is abrasion wear. Barylski et al. [31] investigated the wear behavior of the WE43 and WE54 alloys using the linear reciprocating motion with four different counter parts. Lv et al. [32] examined the wear behavior of the as-cast and laser-melted Mg-11Y-2.5Zn alloy under dry sliding conditions. In contrast, several studies on WE-series magnesium alloys have mainly focused on their mechanical and creep properties. This study differs from the previous studies by systematically investigating the effect of the heat treatment on the wear behavior of WE54 alloy at elevated temperatures up to 150 °C. It also discusses the relationship between heat treatment, volumetric wear rate, coefficient of friction, and surface morphology. The study also aims to identify optimal heat treatment conditions that enhance the high-temperature wear performance of the WE54 alloy.

2. Experimental Methods

The pure magnesium ingots were heated to 660 °C in a steel crucible, and the required quantity of alloying elements, as mentioned in Table 1, was added to the molten magnesium in an induction-based crucible furnace with an inert gas (Argon) atmosphere. Then, the furnace was heated to 800 °C and stirred using a mechanical stirrer at 600 RPM for 15 min to achieve a homogeneous distribution of the alloying elements in the Mg matrix. The molten metal was maintained at 800 °C for 30 min, then poured into a mild steel mold measuring 245 mm × 215 mm × 30 mm. The composition of the cast alloy is provided in Table 1. The cast alloy was subjected to solutionizing treatment (T4 condition) at 525 °C for 8 h, followed by hot water quenching at 60 to 80 °C for one minute. Next, it underwent age hardening (T6 condition) at 250 °C for 16 h, then secondary age hardening (S.A) at 250 °C for 16 h and 150 °C for 4 weeks, followed by open-air cooling. The heat treatment was performed in a high-temperature tubular furnace (Make: Indfurr, Maximum temperature: 1200 °C) with a heating rate of 5 °C/min in an inert gas (Argon) atmosphere. The samples were polished using the SiC sheets (up to 3000 grit size) and disc polishing using the alumina slurry. Then the polished sample was etched using the picric-acetic solution (0.8 g picric acid, 2 mL acetic acid, 15 mL distilled water, and 15 mL ethanol). The sample’s microstructure has been observed under the optical microscope (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan). The Vickers microhardness was measured using the Matsuzawa mmt-x hardness tester with a load of 100 gf and a dwell time of 15 s.
Samples with an 8 mm diameter and 30 mm length are prepared for wear testing using wire electrical discharge machining. The as-cast, T4, T6, and secondary aged samples were polished with SiC grit sheets (up to 2000 grit) and ultrasonicated for 10 min. Before the wear test, the disc was ground using a surface grinding machine to achieve a surface roughness (Ra) of 0.4 μm and cleaned with acetone to prevent humidity and unwanted deposition.
The dry sliding wear test was conducted according to ASTM G99 [33] at different temperatures (RT, 50 °C, 100 °C, and 150 °C) using a pin-on-disc tester (DUCOM, Bangalore, India, TR-20-PHM600) with a sliding speed of 1 m/s, a load of 10 N, and a sliding distance of 1000 m. Three samples at each condition were tested to ensure reliability. The sample weights were measured before and after the wear test using a weighing balance (Mettler Toledo, Greifensee, Switzerland, ME204). The samples were rubbed against hardened EN 31 steel (counterpart) with a hardness value of 62 HRC. The friction coefficient (CoF) was determined using the software connected to the DUCOM pin-on-disc tester, and the volumetric wear rate (mg) was calculated based on mass loss over the sliding distance. Volumetric wear loss was calculated by dividing the mass loss by the density of the alloy. Using Archard’s law, the coefficient of wear was determined [34].
V L   = k   W h
where V is the volumetric wear loss, L is the sliding distance, W is the applied load, h is the hardness of the sample, and k is the coefficient of wear, which is a dimensionless quantity.
The worn surface’s phase analysis, morphology, and structure have been examined using X-ray diffraction (XRD) (Bruker, Berlin, Germany, D8-Advance P-XRD) with Cu Kα radiation (1.5406 Å) (current 30 mA and voltage 40 kV) over the range of 20° to 90° and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA, FEI Quanta 250 FEG) equipped with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) (Oxford, UK).

3. Results and Discussions:

3.1. Microstructure Analysis (WE54 Mg Alloy)

The optical micrographs of cast and heat-treated WE54 alloy are shown in Figure 1. Intermetallic phases are unevenly distributed along the grain boundaries as primary precipitates in the as-cast condition. This occurs because of the limited grain boundary activation energy at room temperature, which restricts the movement and distribution of precipitates. In the T4 condition, the eutectic second phases dissolve into the Mg matrix, forming a soft α-Mg phase. Similarly, in the T6 and S.A. conditions, equiaxed grains are observed with precipitates forming along the grain boundaries and inside the grains. Additionally, in T6-treated and secondary-aged samples, the grain structure becomes even more refined and consists of black dot spots in the microstructure. Literature suggests these block dots are rare-earth-rich particles, i.e., Mg-Y or other Mg-RE-rich regions [35]. The microhardness values of the as-cast and heat-treated samples are given in Table 2. The T6 and S.A. samples exhibit a 20% and 21% improvement in the microhardness values, respectively.

3.2. Volumetric Wear Rate and Coefficient of Friction (CoF):

The coefficient of friction showed a clear trend related to heat-treated conditions and temperature, as illustrated in Figure 2. The CoF values ranged from 0.24 to 0.51, consistent with Mg-Zn alloy tests conducted with a load of 20 N and a sliding distance of 2000 m [36]. The CoF improved from the as-cast condition to T4 as precipitates dissolved, aiding softening and adhesion. However, it decreased in T6 because stronger precipitates formed, increasing surface hardness. The highest CoF was observed in the secondary aged (S.A.) condition (0.512 at 150 °C). Temperature significantly affected CoF; when the temperature rose to 50 °C, the CoF values of T4 and T6 increased. At 100 °C, the as-cast sample showed an increased CoF due to greater adhesion, while the T6 sample showed a reduced CoF, indicating improved thermal stability from precipitate formation. CoF increased again in T4, T6, and S.A. at 150 °C, and the tested samples’ hardness was lower than that tested at 100 °C, suggesting thermal softening and increased oxidation, which leads to thicker oxide layers. Oxidation occurs at higher temperatures because of increased oxygen diffusion driven by the reactivity of Mg and its alloying elements. Direct metal-to-counterpart contact is reduced at elevated temperatures by forming an oxide layer [37]. Conversely, the as-cast CoF decreased at 150 °C, possibly due to the formation of a more stable oxide layer that reduced friction. This suggests that oxide layers can act as lubricants at intermediate temperatures (50–100 °C). However, these oxide layers are likely to fragment at higher temperatures in heat-treated samples, leading to increased friction. The influence of surface oxidation is nearly eliminated, with oxygen content on the worn surface ranging from 1.19% to 3.84% for the Mg-Zn-Y alloy tested at 200 °C [38].
The volumetric wear rate changed with different heat treatments and temperatures, as shown in Table 3. There was little change in volumetric wear rate at room temperature for the as-cast, T4, and T6 samples; however, the secondary aged (S.A.) samples showed an improvement, likely due to precipitation hardening. At 50 °C, the volumetric wear rate decreased in the as-cast, T4, and T6 conditions compared to room temperature, likely because of the formation of a mild oxide layer that acts as a protective barrier. A further decrease in volumetric wear rate was observed at 100 °C, indicating that the oxide layer offers better resistance in both the as-cast and T4 conditions. In addition, at 100 °C, the as-cast and T4 conditions exhibit higher hardness values than the other testing temperatures. The as-cast sample exhibits the lowest volumetric wear rate of 8.16 ± 1.47 mm3 at 100 °C. Somekawa et al. [30], reported the wear rate of Mg-Y alloys is 2.7 × 10−3 mm3/m at room temperature, and Venkataiah et al. [39] reported the wear rate of ZE41 alloy is 0.002609 mm3/m at 250 °C, which is lower than the lowest wear rate of this study. However, the T6-treated sample showed the highest volumetric wear rate (12.95 ± 1.65 mm3) at 100 °C compared to the as-cast and T4 samples. This may be due to the precipitates’ instability at the intermediate temperatures, leading to localized softening that accelerates wear. At 150 °C, all samples experienced a steady increase in volumetric wear rate due to oxidation and softening, with S.A. having the highest volumetric wear rate (14.68 ± 1.59 mm3) and the as-cast having the lowest (10.44 ± 0.63 mm3). The trend showed a decrease up to 100 °C, but beyond that, the volumetric wear rate increased for the as-cast and T4 samples. In contrast, the T6 sample’s volumetric wear rate increased beyond 50 °C, and the S.A. sample’s volumetric wear rate rose sharply at 150 °C, indicating precipitate instability. The overall increase in volumetric wear rates at 150 °C is due to oxidation, thermal softening, and material removal. Moderate volumetric wear rates within the 50–100 °C range help improve wear resistance under certain conditions. The as-cast samples had the lowest volumetric wear rate compared to the other conditions tested at these temperatures.
The wear coefficient steadily decreased to a minimum of 0.118 ± 0.01 for the T6 sample at 50 °C compared to other conditions, indicating increased wear resistance under this condition. At 100 °C, the T4-treated sample shows the lowest wear coefficient among the conditions. At 150 °C, the wear coefficient increases across all conditions, reaching a high of 0.171 ± 0.02 for the secondary aged sample, suggesting greater material degradation at higher temperatures. For room temperature and 100 °C, the wear coefficient decreases in as-cast and T4 samples, then increases again at 150 °C, likely due to material softening and oxidation. For T6 and S.A. treated alloys, the trend appears more irregular as temperature rises. The secondary aged samples experience a sharp increase in wear coefficient at 150 °C, likely due to abrasive and adhesive wear mechanisms.

3.3. Characterization of Worn-Out Surface

The wear morphology under each test condition is shown in Figure 3a–p. The worn surfaces of as-cast samples display abrasive and adhesive wear, as well as delamination, across all tested temperatures. Hard intermetallic phases in the samples were the main factor contributing to abrasive wear [37]. At 150 °C, severe abrasive wear is evident, with deep grooves and patches indicating thermal softening. For T4-treated alloys, the wear behavior was affected by oxide formation and moderate delamination, as seen in Figure 3e–h. Additionally, volumetric wear rates vary with abrasion and oxidation in T4 heat-treated samples. More pronounced delamination occurs at higher temperatures than at RT, with increased adhesive wear from 50 °C to 150 °C. Figure 3i–l shows that the T6 heat-treated alloy exhibits a more uniform distribution of abrasive and adhesive wear. In terms of adhesive wear, RT and 50 °C show smaller wear sites, which become more prominent at higher temperatures. Material removal is most significant in secondary-aged alloys compared to other conditions, regardless of the testing temperature. At room temperature, the wear is mainly driven by abrasive wear and delamination. At 150 °C, surface wear mainly involves abrasive wear and delamination, with a high volumetric wear rate due to oxide layer reduction. Conversely, at 100 °C, less wear occurs because of a higher presence of oxides such as ZrO2 and MgO compared to 50 °C. In RT, oxidation is limited. The primary wear mechanisms in this condition are delamination and abrasive wear, leading to surface degradation over time. At 50 °C, the formation of oxide layers is initiated, as indicated by higher levels of Nd2O3 and ZrO2 in all heat-treated conditions. Significant delamination is also observed. For 100 °C, as-cast and T4 heat-treated alloys show less wear than at other temperatures, probably due to oxide layer formation that acts as a lubricant. XRD phase analysis and EDS results in Figure 4 and Figure 5 reveal the formation of various oxides, including MgO, Mg(OH)2, Y2O3, Nd2O3, and ZrO2 on the worn surfaces. The worn surface composition of the corresponding EDS analysis is given in Table 4. Peaks of α-Mg are present in all samples at the tested temperatures. The phase analysis indicates lower oxide formation in T4-treated samples compared to others at all temperatures. The formation of these oxides depends on the alloying elements’ diffusion rate and solubility limits [40]. The presence of oxides influences the volumetric wear rate. Although Mg, Y, Nd, and Zr oxides form at 150 °C, this does not enhance wear resistance compared to samples tested at 100 °C. Magnesium oxides are most preferred to form over the sample surface. Magnesium oxides dominate the oxide layer, which controls the volumetric wear rate of the alloy, along with rare earth oxides. From RT to 100 °C, forming different oxides over the sample surface can reduce metal–metal contact, lowering CoF and volumetric wear rate. At 150 °C, the magnesium oxide layer will likely become discontinuous under thermal and shear stresses due to its lower PB ratio [37]. Although the rare earth oxides (Y2O3, Nd2O3, and ZrO2) also form at 150 °C, their limited surface coverage and tendency to fragment at 150 °C likely generate hard debris and a discontinuous film, which explains why wear resistance does not improve compared with 100 °C. The EDS analysis also shows iron (Fe) in the worn surface of the pin, likely transferred from the counterpart material, although this transfer is negligible as shown in Table 4.

4. Conclusions

This study examines the effects of heat treatment on the high-temperature wear behavior of WE54 magnesium alloy. The conclusions are summarized below:
  • All the sample conditions show similar volumetric wear rates at room temperature and when tested at 50 °C. The as-cast sample has the lowest volumetric wear rates of 8.16 ± 1.47 mm3 and 10.44 ± 0.63 mm3 at 100 °C and 150 °C, respectively. In contrast, the highest volumetric wear rate was observed in the S.A. condition (14.68 ± 1.59 mm3) at 150 °C.
  • Among the tested conditions, the T6 (age-hardened) samples showed the most consistent wear resistance across all tested specimens. Additionally, the T6-treated sample has a lower volumetric wear rate (11.4 ± 0.59 mm3) at 50 °C.
  • The coefficient of friction (CoF) decreased from room temperature to 50 °C, possibly due to the formation of oxide layers that reduced friction. However, the CoF increased at higher temperatures as these oxide layers began to break down.
  • Similarly to volumetric wear rate, wear mechanisms also changed with test temperatures, with abrasive and delamination wear dominating at lower temperatures, while oxidative and adhesive wear took over above 100 °C.
  • The findings confirm that the T6 treatment significantly enhances the high-temperature wear resistance of WE54 alloy, making it suitable for demanding applications in the automotive and aerospace industries.

Author Contributions

S.S.: Methodology, Investigation, A.R.H., A.B.M. and A.S.: Data Curation, Plotting the graphs, U.N.K.: Resources and Supervision, A.R.A.: Conceptualization, Supervision, Correcting the draft and comments. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets used and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Kumaravelu, P.; Kandasamy, J. Effect of load and sliding velocity on wear behaviour of magnesium AZ91D composites reinforced with Ca2SiO4 at ambient temperature. Tribol. Int. 2024, 192, 109314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Ajay, C.V.; Manisekar, K. Metallurgical, Mechanical and Tribological Properties of AZ31-Sn/Nano-Al2O3 Composites Fabricated by Stir Casting Technique. Trans. Indian Inst. Met. 2023, 76, 1819–1830. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Thanabal, N.; Silambarasan, R.; Seenuvasaperumal, P.; Basha, D.A.; Elayaperumal, A. Microstructure and mechanical behavior of AXM Mg alloy systems—A review. J. Magnes. Alloys 2024, 12, 2624–2646. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Patel, M.S.; Rahaman, A.; Immanuel, R.J. Tribological profiling of Mg-Gd-Y Alloy: Investigating sliding wear dynamics under varied temperature conditions. Mater. Lett. 2024, 370, 136808. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Sharma, S.K.; Gajević, S.; Sharma, L.K.; Pradhan, R.; Miladinović, S.; Ašonja, A.; Stojanović, B. Magnesium-Titanium Alloys: A Promising Solution for Biodegradable Biomedical Implants. Materials 2024, 17, 5157. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. An, J.; Li, R.; Lu, Y.; Chen, C.; Xu, Y.; Chen, X.; Wang, L. Dry sliding wear behavior of magnesium alloys. Wear 2008, 265, 97–104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Kumar, K.C.K.; Kumar, B.R.; Rao, N.M. Artificial Neural Network Modeling of Tribological Parameters Optimization of AZ31-SIC Metal Matrix Composite. Appl. Eng. Lett. 2023, 8, 111–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Arora, H.S.; Singh, H.; Dhindaw, B.K. Wear behaviour of a Mg alloy subjected to friction stir processing. Wear 2013, 303, 65–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Selvan, S.A.; Ramanathan, S. Dry sliding wear behavior of as-cast ZE41A magnesium alloy. Mater. Des. 2010, 31, 1930–1936. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. El-Morsy, A.W. Dry sliding wear behavior of hot deformed magnesium AZ61 alloy as influenced by the sliding conditions. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2008, 473, 330–335. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Buch, V.; Mordike, B.L. High-Temperature Properties of Magnesium Alloys. In Magnesium—Alloys and Technology; Wiley: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2003; pp. 106–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. An, J.; Zhao, W.; Feng, C.Q. Elevated-temperature wear characteristics and mild-severe wear transition in the mg-10.1gd-1.4y-0.4zr alloy. J. Tribol. 2019, 141, 121601. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Liu, L.; Chen, X.; Pan, F.; Wang, Z.; Liu, W.; Cao, P.; Yan, T.; Xu, X. Effect of Y and Ce additions on microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–Zn–Zr alloys. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2015, 644, 247–253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Ma, C.; Liu, M.; Wu, G.; Ding, W.; Zhu, Y. Tensile properties of extruded ZK60–RE alloys. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2003, 349, 207–212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Chia, T.L.; Easton, M.A.; Zhu, S.M.; Gibson, M.A.; Birbilis, N.; Nie, J.F. The effect of alloy composition on the microstructure and tensile properties of binary Mg-rare earth alloys. Intermetallics 2009, 17, 481–490. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Wu, A.R.; Xia, C.Q. Study of the microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg-rare earth alloys. Mater. Des. 2007, 28, 1963–1967. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Chen, B.; Lu, C.; Lin, D.; Zeng, X. Microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of Mg 95.5Y3Zn1.5 alloy processed by extrusion and ECAP. Met. Mater. Int. 2014, 20, 285–290. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Cai, H.; Guo, F.; Su, J. Combined effects of cerium and cooling rate on microstructure and mechanical properties of AZ91 magnesium alloy. Mater. Res. Express 2018, 5, 016503. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Nouri, M.; Sun, X.; Li, D.Y. Beneficial effects of yttrium on the performance of Mg–3%Al alloy during wear, corrosion and corrosive wear. Tribol. Int. 2013, 67, 154–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Nodooshan, H.R.J.; Liu, W.; Wu, G.; Ding, W.; Mahmudi, R. Effect of Gd addition on the wear behavior of Mg–xGd–3Y–0.5 Zr alloys. J. Mater. Res. 2016, 31, 1133–1144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Mansouri, A.; Ghasemi, H.M.; Yazdi, R.; Mahmudi, R.; Sohi, M.H. Dry tribological behavior of a cast Mg-Gd-Zr-Ag alloy at room and elevated temperatures. J. Mater. Res. Technol. 2022, 18, 5126–5143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Wang, Y.B.; Li, L.; An, J. Dry wear behavior and mild-to-severe wear transition in an Mg-Gd-Y-Zr alloy. Surf. Topogr. 2021, 9, 025032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. An, J.; Tian, Y.X.; Feng, C.Q. Correlation between test temperature, applied load and wear transition of Mg97Zn1Y2 alloy. J. Magnes. Alloys 2021, 9, 592–603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Zhang, J.; Zhang, X.; Liu, Q.; Yang, S.; Wang, Z. Effects of Load on Dry Sliding Wear Behavior of Mg–Gd–Zn–Zr Alloys. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 2017, 33, 645–651. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Xu, W.; Yu, J.; Jia, L.; Gao, C.; Miao, Z.; Wu, G.; Li, G.; Zhang, Z. Grain refinement impact on the mechanical properties and wear behavior of Mg-9Gd-3Y-2Zn-0.5Zr alloy after decreasing temperature reciprocating upsetting-extrusion. J. Magnes. Alloys 2022, 10, 3506–3519. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Hu, M.L.; Wang, Q.D.; Li, C.; Ding, W.J. Dry sliding wear behavior of cast Mg–11Y–5Gd–2Zn magnesium alloy. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 2012, 22, 1918–1923. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Hu, M.; Wang, Q.; Chen, C.; Yin, D.; Ding, W.; Ji, Z. Dry sliding wear behaviour of Mg–10Gd–3Y–0.4Zr alloy. Mater. Des. 2012, 42, 223–229. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Li, J.; Chen, R.; Ma, Y.; Ke, W. Effect of Zr modification on solidification behavior and mechanical properties of Mg–Y–RE (WE54) alloy. J. Magnes. Alloys 2013, 1, 346–351. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Barylski, A.; Kupka, M.; Aniołek, K.; Rak, J. The effect of precipitation hardening on the structure and mechanical and tribological properties of magnesium alloy WE54. Vacuum 2017, 139, 77–86. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Somekawa, H.; Maeda, S.; Hirayama, T.; Matsuoka, T.; Inoue, T.; Mukai, T. Microstructural evolution during dry wear test in magnesium and Mg–Y alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2013, 561, 371–377. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Barylski, A.; Aniołek, K.; Dercz, G.; Matuła, I.; Kaptacz, S.; Rak, J.; Paszkowski, R. Improving the Tribological Properties of WE43 and WE54 Magnesium Alloys by Deep Cryogenic Treatment with Precipitation Hardening in Linear Reciprocating Motion. Materials 2024, 17, 2011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Lv, X.X.; Liu, H.Y.; Wang, Y.B.; Lu, Y.; Li, G.Y.; An, J. Microstructure and dry sliding wear behavior of Mg-Y-Zn alloy modified by laser surface melting. J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 2011, 20, 1015–1022. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. ASTM G99-23; Test Method for Wear Testing with a Pin-on-Disk Apparatus. ASTM International: West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 2023. [CrossRef]
  34. Archard, J.F. Contact and rubbing of flat surfaces. J. Appl. Phys. 1953, 24, 981–988. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Jiang, L.; Liu, W.; Wu, G.; Ding, W. Effect of chemical composition on the microstructure, tensile properties and fatigue behavior of sand-cast Mg–Gd–Y–Zr alloy. Mater. Sci. Eng. A 2014, 612, 293–301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Ramesh, S.; Anne, G.; Nayaka, H.S.; Sahu, S.; Ramesh, M.R. Investigation of dry sliding wear properties of multi-directional forged Mg–Zn alloys. J. Magnes. Alloys 2019, 7, 444–455. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Somasundaram, M.; NarendraKumar, U.; Annamalai, A.R.; Muthuchamy, A. High-temperature tribological performance of stir-cast and heat-treated EV31A magnesium alloy: Experiments and predictions. Heliyon 2023, 9, e19055. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Li, L.; Feng, J.; Liang, C.; An, J. Dry sliding wear behavior and mild-severe wear transition of Mg97Zn1Y2 alloy at elevated temperatures. Materials 2018, 11, 1735. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Venkataiah, M.; Kumar, T.A.; Rao, K.V.; Kumar, S.A.; Dumpala, R.; Sunil, B.R. Investigation on the role of microstructure and temperature on tribological characteristics of fine-grained ZE41 Mg alloy. Tribol.-Mater. Surf. Interfaces 2022, 16, 68–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Birks, N.; Meier, G.H.; Pettit, F.S. Oxidation of alloys. In Introduction to the High Temperature Oxidation of Metals; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2006; pp. 101–162. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Jmmp 09 00304 g001
Figure 1. Microstructures of WE54 alloy (a) as cast, (b) T4, (c) T6, and (d) Secondary Aging.
Figure 1. Microstructures of WE54 alloy (a) as cast, (b) T4, (c) T6, and (d) Secondary Aging.
Jmmp 09 00304 g001
Jmmp 09 00304 g002
Figure 2. Coefficient of friction as-cast, T4, T6, and S.A. treated WE54 alloy.
Figure 2. Coefficient of friction as-cast, T4, T6, and S.A. treated WE54 alloy.
Jmmp 09 00304 g002
Jmmp 09 00304 g003
Figure 3. FE-SEM Micrographs (a–d) as-cast; (e–h) T4; (i–l) T6; (m–p) S.A; (a,e,i,m) RT; (b,f,j,n) 50 °C; (c,g,k,o) 100 °C; (d,h,l,p) 150 °C.
Figure 3. FE-SEM Micrographs (a–d) as-cast; (e–h) T4; (i–l) T6; (m–p) S.A; (a,e,i,m) RT; (b,f,j,n) 50 °C; (c,g,k,o) 100 °C; (d,h,l,p) 150 °C.
Jmmp 09 00304 g003
Jmmp 09 00304 g004
Figure 4. XRD Analysis of WE54 test specimen ((a–d) RT, 50 °C, 100 °C, 150 °C).
Figure 4. XRD Analysis of WE54 test specimen ((a–d) RT, 50 °C, 100 °C, 150 °C).
Jmmp 09 00304 g004
Jmmp 09 00304 g005aJmmp 09 00304 g005b
Figure 5. EDS mapping of WE54 alloy of all test conditions (a–d) as-cast; (e–h) T4; (i–l) T6; (m–p) S.A; (a,e,i,m) RT; (b,f,j,n) 50 °C; (c,g,k,o) 100 °C; (d,h,l,p) 150 °C.
Figure 5. EDS mapping of WE54 alloy of all test conditions (a–d) as-cast; (e–h) T4; (i–l) T6; (m–p) S.A; (a,e,i,m) RT; (b,f,j,n) 50 °C; (c,g,k,o) 100 °C; (d,h,l,p) 150 °C.
Jmmp 09 00304 g005aJmmp 09 00304 g005b
Table 1. Chemical composition of cast Mg WE54 alloy.
Table 1. Chemical composition of cast Mg WE54 alloy.
ElementMgYNdZrCuMnSi
wt%Bal5.520.450.030.010.01
Table 2. Hardness (HV0.1) value of the test specimens before and after the tribological tests.
Table 2. Hardness (HV0.1) value of the test specimens before and after the tribological tests.
ConditionBefore WearAfter Wear
RT50 °C100 °C150 °C
as-cast95.6 ± 1.8117.1 ± 7122.8 ± 8136.1 ± 6129.2 ± 5
T494.9 ± 2.8100.5 ± 8106 ± 6113.3 ± 10110.8 ± 8
T6114.7 ± 1.9102.3 ± 8103.5 ± 7112.2 ± 6102.5 ± 6
S.A115.9 ± 1.8122.4 ± 2126.7 ± 10129.5 ± 2116.5 ± 2
Table 3. Comparison between the tribological properties of Mg alloy WE54.
Table 3. Comparison between the tribological properties of Mg alloy WE54.
Temp
(°C)		CoFVolumetric Wear Rate
(mm3)		Wear Coefficient
as-
Cast		T4T6S.Aas-
Cast		T4T6S.Aas-
Cast		T4T6S.A
RT0.2900.3170.2890.39012.34 ± 1.0412.39 ± 1.0313.89 ± 0.8911.9 ± 0.30.145 ± 0.010.125 ± 0.010.142 ± 0.010.146 ± 0.004
500.2690.3790.3900.32012.07 ± 0.912.98 ± 1.2911.4 ± 0.5913.4 ± 1.260.148 ± 0.010.138 ± 0.010.118 ± 0.010.17 ± 0.02
1000.4970.2480.3030.4128.16 ± 1.479.14 ± 1.4212.95 ± 1.6511.97 ± 0.680.112 ± 0.020.104 ± 0.020.145 ± 0.020.155 ± 0.01
1500.4070.4400.4950.51210.44 ± 0.6310.7 ± 1.3912.05 ± 1.4514.68 ± 1.590.135 ± 0.010.119 ± 0.020.124 ± 0.020.171 ± 0.02
Table 4. EDS results of the worn-out surface of WE54 alloy at different operating temperatures.
Table 4. EDS results of the worn-out surface of WE54 alloy at different operating temperatures.
ConditionsTemp (°C)Content of Elements (wt.%)
MgYNdOZrFe
as CastRT92.23.92.511.00.60.1
5083.23.71.99.81.20.2
10083.44.42.49.00.30.5
15082.94.02.110.30.70
T4RT80.94.52.010.12.00.2
5081.93.82.69.70.50.3
10082.93.92.69.70.50.3
15085.64.33.06.10.70.2
T6RT79.13.82.114.30.60.1
5084.84.12.77.10.31.0
10082.43.62.410.90.60.1
15084.63.82.28.80.60
Secondary
Aging		RT80.33.52.313.20.50.1
5087.33.72.06.30.60
10082.93.52.110.90.50.1
15080.03.51.714.00.70.1
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Saravanan, S.; Hattimare, A.R.; Mahadik, A.B.; Singh, A.; Kumar, U.N.; Annamalai, A.R. Effect of Heat Treatment on High-Temperature Tribological Behavior of WE54 Alloy: An Experimental Study. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2025, 9, 304. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9090304

AMA Style

Saravanan S, Hattimare AR, Mahadik AB, Singh A, Kumar UN, Annamalai AR. Effect of Heat Treatment on High-Temperature Tribological Behavior of WE54 Alloy: An Experimental Study. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing. 2025; 9(9):304. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9090304

Chicago/Turabian Style

Saravanan, Sudharsan, Aditya Raman Hattimare, Atharva Bharat Mahadik, Arnav Singh, Uttamchand Narendra Kumar, and A. Raja Annamalai. 2025. "Effect of Heat Treatment on High-Temperature Tribological Behavior of WE54 Alloy: An Experimental Study" Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 9, no. 9: 304. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9090304

APA Style

Saravanan, S., Hattimare, A. R., Mahadik, A. B., Singh, A., Kumar, U. N., & Annamalai, A. R. (2025). Effect of Heat Treatment on High-Temperature Tribological Behavior of WE54 Alloy: An Experimental Study. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, 9(9), 304. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp9090304

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop