Influence of the Processing Parameters on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 316L Stainless Steel Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
3. Results
3.1. Surface Roughness
3.2. Relative Density Assessment
3.3. Microstructure Evaluation
3.4. Microhardness
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
- It has been found that there is a direct relationship between scanning speed and the porosity level. Enough volumetric energy (125 J/mm3) density must be provided to avoid fusion errors and balling phenomena to obtain pieces with maximum relative density. Within the levels evaluated in the design of experiments, it was found that scanning speed is the most statistically significant factor that affects the relative density and microhardness of the 316L SS processed by LPBF.
- The maximum densification reached was 99.41%, obtained with Archimedes’ principle, equivalent to 99.9% by image correlation, utilizing 180 W of laser power, 700 mm/s of scanning speed, and a hatch spacing of 40 μm. To increase productivity, it is recommended to use a laser power greater than 160 W and a hatch spacing of 60 μm.
- Microstructurally, it was found that the samples are composed of stacked molten pools, one on top of the other, aligned in the build direction; columnar sub-grains can be distinguished within the elongated grains with an extension that sometimes exceeds 300 µm.
- Densification in additive manufacturing processes has reached porosity levels comparable to conventional processes (>99%). Therefore, the laser powder bed fusion technique is suitable for manufacturing mechanical elements.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Power (W) | Speed (mm/s) | Hatch (μm) | Layer Thickness (μm) | Energy Density (J/mm3) | Machine/ Model | Relative Density (%) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
200 | 750–1000 | 50 | 110 | 35–50 | - | 97.97 | [2] |
120–160 | 800–1200 | 60–80 | 20–40 | 32–130 | Concept Laser Mlab200 | 96.6 | [7] |
150 | 400–800 | 40 | 80 | 60–120 | Self-developed 500W | 96.82 | [22] |
80–100 | 300–1700 | 20 | 40–120 | 20–400 | EP-M100T | 98.77 | [30] |
150–300 | 700–1300 | 20 | 60–120 | 36–350 | FS271M | 98.52 | [31] |
100 | 111–250 | 50 | 110–120 | 66–400 | SLM 125 | 96.00 | [32] |
150–200 | 446–1667 | 30 | 80–140 | 20–180 | SLM 280HL | 98.59 | [33] |
125–175 | 180–260 | 40 | 20–60 | 200–1200 | RENISHAW AM 400 | 98.62 | [34] |
220 | 960 | 40 | 80 | 70 | BLT S200 | 95.61 | [35] |
100 | 400–600 | 30 | 30–150 | 40–280 | REALIZER SLM 100 | 96.50 | [36] |
70–130 | 700–1200 | 20 | 60 | 50–150 | MYSINT100 | 96.84 | [37] |
175 | 668 | 30 | 120 | 70 | SLM 250 HL | 99.05 | [26] |
150 | 125–200 | 50 | 90 | 160–260 | RENISHAW 125 | 96.40 | [38] |
200 | 2000 | 30 | 60 | 55 | AFS-M120 | 97.38 | [39] |
Elements (wt%) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fe | Cr | Ni | Mo | Mn | Si | C | P | S |
Bal. | 16.5–18 | 10–13 | 2–2.5 | 0–2 | 0–1 | 0–0.03 | 0–0.04 | 0–0.03 |
Factors | Levels | ||
---|---|---|---|
−1 | 0 | 1 | |
Laser power (W) | 120 | 140 | 160 |
Scanning speed (mm/s) | 700 | 900 | 1100 |
Hatch spacing (µm) | 40 | 60 | 80 |
Source | DF | Adj SS | Adj MS | F-Value | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Laser Power (W) | 2 | 0.02534 | 0.01267 | 1.22 | 0.317 |
Scanning speed (mm/s) | 2 | 0.20629 | 0.10315 | 9.91 | 0.001 |
Hatch spacing (um) | 2 | 0.05160 | 0.02580 | 2.48 | 0.109 |
Error | 20 | 0.20815 | 0.01041 | ||
Total | 26 | 0.49138 |
Glow Discharge Emission Spectrometry (GDOES) | ||||||
Element (wt%) | ||||||
Fe | Cr | Ni | Mo | Si | Mn | Co |
Bal. | 18.9 ± 1.6 | 12.5 ± 0.9 | 2.7 ± 0.2 | 0.9 ± 0.2 | 0.5 ± 0.03 | 0.1 ± 0.01 |
Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) | ||||||
Element (wt%) | ||||||
Fe | Cr | Ni | Mo | Si | Mn | Co |
Bal. | 16.98 | 11.14 | 2.10 | 0.56 | 0.75 | 0.65 |
Source | DF | Adj SS | Adj MS | F-Value | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Power (W) | 2 | 9.74 | 4.870 | 0.18 | 0.836 |
Speed (mm/s) | 2 | 380.51 | 190.257 | 7.06 | 0.005 |
Hatch (um) | 2 | 89.46 | 44.732 | 1.66 | 0.215 |
Error | 20 | 538.65 | 26.932 | ||
Total | 26 | 1018.37 |
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Barrionuevo, G.O.; Ramos-Grez, J.A.; Sánchez-Sánchez, X.; Zapata-Hidalgo, D.; Mullo, J.L.; Puma-Araujo, S.D. Influence of the Processing Parameters on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 316L Stainless Steel Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion. J. Manuf. Mater. Process. 2024, 8, 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8010035
Barrionuevo GO, Ramos-Grez JA, Sánchez-Sánchez X, Zapata-Hidalgo D, Mullo JL, Puma-Araujo SD. Influence of the Processing Parameters on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 316L Stainless Steel Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing. 2024; 8(1):35. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8010035
Chicago/Turabian StyleBarrionuevo, Germán Omar, Jorge Andrés Ramos-Grez, Xavier Sánchez-Sánchez, Daniel Zapata-Hidalgo, José Luis Mullo, and Santiago D. Puma-Araujo. 2024. "Influence of the Processing Parameters on the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties of 316L Stainless Steel Fabricated by Laser Powder Bed Fusion" Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing 8, no. 1: 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmmp8010035