Evaluation of Food Technologies and Farmers’ Practices Related to Sorghum Cultivation in Central and Northern Benin ^†

Abstract

This study explored food habits and traditional practices related to sorghum cultivation in Benin. Based on data collected from 289 producers, statistical analysis revealed that sorghum is mainly consumed as porridge (97.92%), paste (91.69%), akassa (40.48%), and used as fodder (30.45%). Additionally, its leaves are used in the treatment of anemia and malaria (40.48%), while its stems serve in shelter construction (55.36%). Factorial analysis shows that these uses vary across sociocultural groups: the Kotokoli, Lokpa, Yom, Mokolé, and Idatcha favor food consumption, the Bariba use it for medicinal purposes, and the Fulani transform it into a local beverage. These findings highlight the need to tailor sorghum breeding programs to sociocultural needs and current climate challenges.

1. Introduction

Sorghum is one of the main staple crops in West Africa. It is a subsistence crop for hundreds of millions of people living in rural areas [1]. This cereal, capable to grow where other cereals are too demanding, is part of the basic diet of low-income populations and a forage crop for livestock [2]. However, this crop faces the challenges of climate change, which are expected to reduce its yield by 13% in West Africa [3]. Furthermore, projected climate change in the dry savannah of Northern Benin will likely reduce the efficiency of water and nitrogen use, and grain yields of maize and sorghum [4]. These threats will not go unanswered by farmers and scientific communities, who seek to use or develop new, more resilient and productive varieties. However, in peasant communities, producers adopt a wide diversity of local species and varieties that have culturally important advantages [5,6]. Indeed, they possess traditional knowledge about the value and properties of many plant species [7,8]. Thus, genetic resource improvement programs can only be sustainable if they integrate the social, cultural, and economic values associated with them by local communities. For this reason, knowledge and consideration of peasant perceptions are necessary and decisive in identifying measures to adapt local agriculture [9]. In this sense, ethnobotanical studies appear to be a good approach to understand, in a given region, the uses and sociocultural perceptions of genetic resources by local populations [10]. Endogenous knowledge, an essential component of the adoption and conservation of technologies, is important both in improving the daily lives of populations and in decision-making for the sustainable management of natural resources [11]. All this knowledge is indispensable in the development of new inclusive technologies aimed at providing effective solutions to threats at the community level [12]. It is therefore imperative to explore farmers’ knowledge regarding threatened crops in order to enable the scientific community to develop new varieties that take into account the social context of their use [13,14]. It is in this perspective that the present study aimed to evaluate food technologies and farmers’ practices related to the use of sorghum by different sociocultural groups in Central and Northern Benin.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

This study was conducted in three agroecological zones out of the eight that exist in Benin (Figure 1). The classification of these zones is based on the definition of relatively homogeneous zones using agro-pedological parameters, crop systems, spatial distribution of the population, and vegetation [15]. These zones were chosen based on their level of production and diversity in sorghum, and the interest that their communities attach to its use in Benin [16].

2.2. Sampling Method

The sample size (n) was obtained using the binomial distribution proposed by Dagnélie (1998) [17]:

n = [(U₁ − α /2)² × Pᵢ × (1 − Pᵢ)] ⁄ d²

where Pi (75%) represents the proportion of producers who are aware of and use sorghum, and U1 − α/2 = 1.96 indicates the value of the normal random variable for a risk α equal to 0.05. The estimated margin of error for any survey parameter is 5% (d). For the Pi values obtained, 289 producers were identified and randomly sampled within the different sociocultural groups (

Table 1. Sampling groups.

Regions of Benin	Sociocultural Groups	Absolute Frequencies	Relative Frequencies (%)
Central	Bariba	13	4.50
	Idacha	38	13.15
	Mahi	19	6.57
	Peulh	10	3.46
Total	Total	80	27.68
Northern	Kotokoli	12	4.15
	Lokpa	11	3.81
	Bariba	75	25.95
	Mokolé	10	3.46
	Fulani	34	11.76
	Peulh	20	6.92
	Yom	47	16.26
Total	-	209	72.32
Total surveyed	-	289	100

).

2.3. Data Collection

The data collection process involved both individual structured interviews and focus group discussions. Using a well-designed questionnaire and an interview guide, data were first gathered through one-on-one interviews with the sampled producers. To complement and validate the information collected individually, focus groups were then conducted, allowing for collective discussions and data confirmation. The key data collected included the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of producers (such as gender, age, primary and secondary activities, education level, and sorghum cultivation area) and the various food, medicinal, artisanal, and cultural uses of sorghum across different sociocultural groups in Central and Northern Benin.

2.4. Data Analysis

For the reported forms of use, the relative citation frequencies (RCFs) were used to assess the relative importance of each use. In order to determine the distribution of knowledge in the population, the interviewed individuals were grouped according to their sociocultural affiliation. Contingency tables indicating the number of surveyed individuals mentioning a form of use and the plant part used by the sociocultural group were established. Correspondence factor analysis (CFA) was performed using R software version 3.4.1 to describe the relationship between sociocultural groups and usage categories, and the relationship between sociocultural groups and the plant parts used.

3. Results

3.1. Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents

Table 2. Socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the respondents.

Sociodemographic Characteristics		Number	%
Gender	Male	244	84.43
	Female	45	15.57
Ages	18 to 30 years (young)	32	11.07
	31 to 60 years (adults)	235	81.31
	Over 60 years old (elderly)	22	7.61
Education level	Primary	31	10.73
	Secondary	14	4.84
	None	244	84.43
Main activity	Agriculture	286	98.96
	Livestock	3	1.04
	Trade	0	0.00
Secondary activity	Livestock	251	86.85
	Agriculture	26	9.00
	Trade	12	4.15
Sorghum cultivation areas	<1 ha	96	33.22
	≥1 ha	193	66.78

presents the socio-economic and demographic characteristics of the surveyed producers. The analysis of this table shows that the surveyed producers were mostly men (84.43%). They were also mostly adults between the ages of 31 and 60 (81.31%), and a small proportion (7.61%) were elderly. In terms of education level, the surveyed individuals were mostly uneducated (84.43%), with a few having completed primary (10.73%) and secondary education (4.84%). Furthermore, they were mostly engaged in agriculture (98.96%) and livestock farming (86.85%) as their main and secondary activities, respectively. Regarding sorghum production, 66.78% of the surveyed producers cultivated areas equal to or greater than one hectare (≥1 ha).

3.2. Categories and Forms of Sorghum Use in Central and Northern Benin

Table 3. Categories and forms of sorghum use in Central and Northern Benin.

Categories of Use	Parts Used	Forms of Use	Number of Citations	FRC (%)
Food	Grains, leaves	Porridge	283	97.92
		Paste	265	91.69
		Fodder	229	79.24
		Akassa	117	40.48
		Feed	88	30.45
Beverage (traditional drinks)	Grains	Tchakpalo	216	74.74
		Tchoukoutou	182	62.98
		Sodabi	75	25.95
Agronomic	Stems, leaves	Organic fertilizer	76	26.30
		Yam support	71	24.57
		Cushions (yam)	75	25.95
Artisanal	Stems, leaves	Fence	242	83.74
		Traditional houses	160	55.36
		Mats	168	58.13
Cultural	Stems	Widow’s stick	46	15.92
Medicinal	Leaves	Malaria and anemia	117	40.48
Cosmetic	Stems, leaves	Soap	86	29.76
		Packaging	65	22.49

FRC: Frequency relative of citation.

reveals seven categories of sorghum uses by producers, including food, beverage, agronomic, artisanal, cultural, medicinal, and cosmetic. Food use is the most mentioned, especially in the form of porridge (97.92%) and dough (91.69%). Furthermore, the grains of this crop are used in the preparation of various traditional drinks such as tchakpalo (74.74%), tchoukoutou (62.98%), and sodabi (25.95%). These different drinks are produced using traditional methods with red sorghum grains. The same table shows that sorghum is adopted by farmers as a leading crop. However, 79.24%, 26.30%, 25.95%, and 24.57% of the respondents, respectively, indicated the use of sorghum leaves and stems as livestock feed, organic fertilizer, support, and cushion for yam mounds. These uses of sorghum facilitate livestock rearing and yam production in the surveyed communities. Additionally, the stems are valued in artisanal constructions by the surveyed farmers. In fact, 83.74%, 58.13%, and 55.36% of the respondents, respectively, use sorghum stems to make fences (Figure 2), mats, and traditional houses (Figure 3). On a cultural level, a minority (15.92%) of the respondents mentioned the adoption of sorghum stems in funeral ceremonies as a widow’s stick. This practice was mentioned among the Yom people in Northern and Central Benin and involved the widow holding the sorghum stem for four months to protect her from ghost spirits. In terms of medicinal use, 40.48% of the respondents mentioned the use of red sorghum leaves in decoction to treat malaria and anemia.

3.3. Relationship Between the Different Categories and Forms of Sorghum Use and the Different Sociocultural Groups of Northern and Central Benin

The correspondences resulting from the projection of the different usage categories and sociocultural groups onto the axis systems of the AFC (Figure 4) show that the Kotokoli, Lokpa, Yom, Mokolé, and Idatcha prefer the food usage of the species, while its medicinal usage is favored by the Bariba. On the other hand, the Peulhs use it more for artisanal construction purposes (traditional houses) and traditional drinks (tchoukoutou and tchakpalo). Its usage as a cultic object (widow’s stick) is more specific to the Lokpa. The other sociocultural groups, not circled in Figure 4, are not associated with a specific usage category.

3.4. Relationship Between the Parts of the Plant Used and the Sociocultural Groups

The correspondences resulting from the projection of the different parts used and sociocultural groups onto the axis systems of the AFC (Figure 5) show that the Peulh, Yom, Lokpa, Kotokoli, and Mahi attach more importance to the stems and grains, while the Bariba and Idatcha rely more on the use of the leaf in addition to the grains. The other sociocultural groups not circled are not associated with the specific use of a plant part.

4. Discussion

This study highlighted the various uses of sorghum by different sociocultural groups in Central and Northern Benin. Thus, food use is the most mentioned in all the surveyed sociocultural groups. This reveals the importance of this crop in the diet of the Benin population. This importance was described in the studies by Chantereau et al. (2013) [18], who stated that sorghum is one of the cereals used as a staple food in many populations of dry tropical regions in Africa, Asia, and Central America, where production is mainly for self-consumption. However, the surveyed producers used sorghum grains to make porridge, akassa, paste, and traditional drinks (tchoukoutou, tchakpalo, and sodabi). These forms of sorghum use have also been reported in several previous studies in Benin and elsewhere in Africa [19,20]. In addition, the use of sorghum residues as fodder and the use of grain by-products as feed for animals, particularly ruminants, were mentioned by 79.24% and 30.45% of the surveyed individuals, respectively. This form of sorghum use demonstrates its importance in livestock farming among the communities in Central and Northern Benin, which have significant livestock herds. This contributes to reducing the difficulties associated with transhumance, which is currently a major problem in agriculture in developing countries. Djohy et al. (2023) [21] confirmed this usefulness of sorghum when they reported that the residues can cover up to 77% of the livestock’s feed requirements during the dry season. Other authors, such as McCuistion et al. (2019) [22], found that when properly processed and balanced with other ingredients, sorghum can serve as a primary source of cereals in animal diets. Agronomically, sorghum leaves and stems are used by farmers to facilitate soil fertilization (26.30%) and support (stakes) yam vines in cultivation (24.57%). These results differ from those mentioned by other authors regarding the uses of sorghum. Indeed, the studies by Dahlberg (2019) [23] and Rao et al. (2019) [24] revealed that sweet sorghum is similar to grain sorghum but has the ability to accumulate sugars in the stems without significantly reducing grain production. It is therefore used as a raw material for first-generation biofuel, with the sugars from the grains and stems being used to produce bioenergy, while energy sorghum or biomass sorghum is increasingly considered as a potential raw material for lignocellulosic biofuel production. This knowledge is still new and rarely disseminated to rural communities [25]. This could explain the non-mention of this use by the surveyed producers. Furthermore, the use of sorghum in traditional medicine was mentioned by some respondents. Thus, according to 40.48% of the producers, the use of red sorghum leaves in decoction helps fight against malaria and anemia. This recipe complements the one related to the antihyperglycemic activity of sorghum grains demonstrated by Ofosu et al. (2020) [26]. The medicinal potential of sorghum has also been mentioned by Stefoska-Needham et al. (2015) [25], who added that sorghum-based diets could play a role in the prevention of chronic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, and heart disease. In addition to these food and medicinal uses, sorghum provides many other services to the community. Thus, culturally, sorghum stems were used as “widow’s stick” among the Yom people in North and Central Benin. This practice involved having the sorghum stem held by the new widow for four months to protect her from the spirits of ghosts. Bricas (1998) [27] addressed this in the same way by demonstrating that sorghum remains an identity symbol and has a reputation for being a healthy food. Associated with rural tradition, individualism, and urban socialization, the consumption of sorghum reflects a certain urban food modernity. Furthermore, the use of sorghum stems in artisanal constructions, such as mats, enclosures, shelters, etc., motivates the Fulani and Mokolé people to cultivate sorghum more in Northern Benin. This could explain the presence of long-stem sorghum varieties (>200 cm) reported by Kayodé et al. (2006) [28] in their study on sorghum diversity in Northern Benin. Speaking of the relationships between the category and forms of use and sociocultural groups, the uses of sorghum are sometimes dependent on sociocultural groups. However, the Kotokoli, Lokpa, Yom, Mokolé, and Idatcha prefer the food use of the species, while its medicinal use is more mentioned by the Bariba. On the other hand, the Fulani people use it more for artisanal constructions (traditional houses) and traditional drinks (tchoukoutou and tchakpalo). Sop et al. (2012) [29] mentioned similar observations regarding woody species in Burkina Faso. The diversity of uses of a species can be explained by the local microclimate that governs its distribution and availability [29]. It can also be due to the diversity of the needs of local communities [30,31].

5. Conclusions

This study investigated food technologies and peasant practices related to the use of sorghum by different sociocultural groups in Central and Northern Benin. This investigation identified the various forms in which producers use sorghum and its derivatives. Thus, the interviewed producers adopted sorghum in various ways for food, agronomic, artisanal, cultural, and medicinal purposes. However, this study identified food use as the most cited among all the different sociocultural groups, especially in the form of porridge, paste, akassa, and traditional beverages (tchoukoutou and tchakpalo). In addition to these food needs, this study highlighted numerous other uses that communities derive from sorghum cultivation. For example, the leaves of red sorghum are used in the treatment of anemia and malaria. Besides these uses, the leaves are also used to feed livestock and fertilize fields. As for the stems, they are of great importance in the lives of the surveyed communities as they are used for building shelters and various other useful artisanal constructions for rural populations. In terms of the relationship between categories and forms of use and the different sociocultural groups surveyed, the uses of sorghum are sometimes dependent on sociocultural groups. However, the Kotokoli, Lokpa, Yom, Mokolé, and Idatcha prefer the food use of the species, while its medicinal use is more cited by the Bariba. On the other hand, the Fulani people use it more for artisanal construction purposes (traditional houses) and traditional beverages (tchoukoutou and tchakpalo). These different specificities in the uses of sorghum by communities should be considered in research programs in order to propose new varieties that not only address current climate challenges but also sociocultural needs.