Next Article in Journal
Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Soil Nutrients in the Ferralic Cambisols Watershed
Previous Article in Journal
Influence of Fertilizer Application Rates on Hydrologic Fluxes and Soil Health in Maize Cultivation in Southern Texas, United States
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Nitrogen
Volume 6
Issue 3
10.3390/nitrogen6030076
nitrogen-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Response of Oats to Fertilisation with Compost and Mineral Nitrogen in a Pot Experiment

by
Wacław Jarecki
1,
Joanna Korczyk-Szabó
2,*,
Milan Macák
2,*,
Anita Zapałowska
3,
Puchooa Daneshwar
4 and
Miroslav Habán
2,5
1
Department of Crop Production, University of Rzeszów, St. Zelwerowicza 4, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland
2
Institute of Crop Production, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources, Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku 2, 949 01 Nitra, Slovakia
3
Department of Agriculture and Waste Management, University of Rzeszów, St. Ćwiklińskiej 1a, 35-601 Rzeszów, Poland
4
Department of Agricultural and Food Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Mauritius, Réduit 80837, Mauritius
5
Department of Pharmacognosy and Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Comenius University in Bratislava, Obojárov 10, 832 32 Bratislava, Slovakia
*
Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Nitrogen 2025, 6(3), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6030076 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 21 May 2025 / Revised: 26 June 2025 / Accepted: 26 August 2025 / Published: 1 September 2025
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

Organic fertilisers release nutrients more slowly than mineral fertilisers, which is why combining organic and mineral fertilisation gives good results in crop cultivation. In the conducted pot experiment, the reaction of oats to compost fertilisation with or without additional nitrogen mineral fertilisation was examined. The following treatments were used: A, control (no fertilisation); B, compost (sewage sludge 80% + sawdust 20%); C, compost (garden and park waste 80% + sawdust 20%); D, compost (sewage sludge 40% + garden and park waste 40% + sawdust 20%); E, compost B with nitrogen fertilisation (30 N kg ha−1); F, compost C with nitrogen fertilisation (30 N kg ha−1); and G, compost D with nitrogen fertilisation (30 N kg ha−1). The study results indicated that the composts used had an altering impact on the soil’s chemical composition by the end of the experiment. Overall, the lowest levels of nutrients were recorded in the control group, indicating that the composts increased soil fertility. Oat plants were better nourished (SPAD—soil–plant analysis development) after fertilisation with sewage sludge composts than garden and park waste composts. However, the most favourable results were obtained in the treatments where organic fertilisation (composts) was combined with mineral fertilisation (nitrogen). All fertilisation treatments significantly enhanced plant height and the number of panicles in the pot compared to the control. The highest values for the number of grains in the panicle, thousand-grain weight, grain mass from the pot, and protein content in the grain were observed after applying organic–mineral fertilisation. Therefore, fertilisation with composts, especially composts combined with mineral nitrogen, can be recommended for oat cultivation.

1. Introduction

Oats (Avena sativa L.) play a significant role in the human diet and as animal feed [1,2,3]. Compared to other cereals, oat grain has a good protein quality in terms of amino acid composition and contains a variety of different nutrients [4]. The size and quality of oat yields are influenced by genetic, environmental, and agronomic factors, with fertilisation being one of the most important. In intensive agricultural production systems, excessive fertilisation, particularly with nitrogen, has a negative impact on the environment. Therefore, promoting environmentally sustainable agronomic practices is recommended [5,6,7].
When nutrients are deficient in the soil or limited availability for plants, fertilisation is necessary to achieve satisfactory yields of high-quality grain [8]. Mantai et al. [9] and Zhu et al. [10] demonstrated that nitrogen fertilisation significantly increased grain oat yield and protein content. Svensson et al. [11] also report that mineral fertilisers significantly increase oat yields, but they also obtained good results with organic fertilisation, especially when combined with mineral fertilisation. Gondek [12] proved that various organic waste materials can be used for fertilisation, ideally after being processed into compost. When using such fertilisers, it is essential to be aware of the risk of introducing heavy metals into the soil and increasing in their bioavailability. Therefore, some composts, such as those made from sewage sludge, should not be used excessively [13]. Gondek et al. [14] and Hoehne et al. [15] conclude that the composition of composts is highly variable due to their different origins. However, an increased accumulation of heavy metals after compost application in oat cultivation was found only in root systems. Moser et al. [16] and Black et al. [17] also confirm that balanced compost fertilisation is safe for oat cultivation and does not threaten the environment. Douds Jr. et al. [18] and Arvanitoyannis and Tserkezou [19] state that composting is the best method for managing agricultural waste, and the resulting fertiliser is generally environmentally safe. The studies conducted by Svensson et al. [11] indicate that if a compost contains insufficient amounts of a particular nutrient, it should be supplemented with a mineral fertiliser, such as nitrogen or phosphorus. However, if a compost contains too much of a specific macronutrient or micronutrient, the appropriate fertiliser dose should be determined, and the soil’s chemical composition should be monitored [20].
In this context, Ju et al. [2] and Kremper et al. [21] state that SPAD (soil–plant analysis development) measurements are good indicators for assessing the nutritional status of oats during the growing season. Xiong et al. [22] demonstrated that the relationship between SPAD readings and leaf nitrogen content largely depends on environmental factors and crop species characteristics, which should be considered when using a chlorophyll meter for nitrogen management in agricultural systems.
Many previous studies [23,24,25,26,27] have proven that good results can be achieved with organic–mineral fertilisation. This results in satisfactory yields with a considerable reduction in mineral fertilisation, which consequently reduces nitrogen losses. Ochiai et al. [28] demonstrated that using biochar with compost in oat cultivation gave better results than fertilising with compost alone.
Sullivan et al. [29] report that compost fertilisation provides beneficial effects not just in the initial year of application, but also in following years. Helgason et al. [23] demonstrated that the availability of nutrients after compost application was too slow and insufficient for the crops. Sullivan et al. [30] and Sullivan et al. [29] proved that compost application yielded favourable results even in the second and third years after fertilisation, with benefits continuing in the following years. Ross et al. [31] indicate that composts derived from biowaste enhanced the humus content in the soil, although their fertilising value was moderate. Godara et al. [32] demonstrated that using compost in oat cultivation resulted in a 25% reduction in the mineral fertiliser dose, which is important for agricultural practice.
The study aimed to compare the fertilising value of different composts in oat cultivation and to justify the use of combined compost fertilisation with mineral nitrogen fertilisation in a pot experiment.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Chemical Properties of the Substrates and Pot Experiment Scheme

The pot experiment was conducted in the Department of Plant Production laboratory at the University of Rzeszów, Poland. The single-factor experiment was conducted in 2024 with four replications. The factor under investigation was oat fertilisation with different composts, with or without additional mineral nitrogen fertilisation, compared to the control. The different fertilisation treatments are outlined below:
A.
Control (no fertilisation);
B.
Compost (sewage sludge 80% + sawdust 20%);
C.
Compost (garden and park waste 80% + sawdust 20%);
D.
Compost (sewage sludge 40% + garden and park waste 40% + sawdust 20%);
E.
Compost B with nitrogen fertilisation (30 N kg ha−1);
F.
Compost C with nitrogen fertilisation (30 N kg ha−1);
G.
Compost D with nitrogen fertilisation (30 N kg ha−1).
The plastic pot had a volume of 20 L, with a diameter of 30 cm. The developmental stages of oats were provided according to the BBCH scale (Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Federal Plant Variety Office, and the Chemical Industry) [33]. For nitrogen mineral fertilisation in treatments E–G, ammonium nitrate (34% N) was applied during the late tillering stage (29 BBCH). The compost doses were calculated to use the equivalent of 60 N kg ha−1 per pot. The other nutrients were not balanced, assuming they would increase soil fertility for the subsequent crop.
Before starting the experiment, composts were prepared from sludge obtained from the wastewater treatment plant in Leżajsk and park and garden waste collected from green areas of Leżajsk municipality, Podkarpackie Voivodeship. The composting process was carried out at the waste disposal site in Giedlarowa (50.22° N, 22.35° E) using composters with a capacity of 1 m3. The composting process lasted from September to December 2023. During this period, the average air temperatures were as follows: 15 °C in September, 10.5 °C in October, 5.5 °C in November, and 1 °C in December. Weekly temperature measurements confirmed the presence of four distinct phases of the composting process: mesophilic, thermophilic, cooling, and maturation.
Chemical composition analysis of the obtained composts was conducted at the PETROGEO Laboratory Services and Geological Company, located at Przemysłowa 11, 38-200 Jasło, using standard analytical methods in accordance with the applicable Polish Standards. As the conducted studies showed, the trace level of heavy metal content in the composted material was several times lower than the permissible standards for sewage sludge (Journal of Laws 2015, item 257, Directive 86/278/EEC on environmental protection, particularly regarding the use of sewage sludge) [34]. Therefore, the produced compost can be used in agriculture as an organic fertiliser or in land reclamation for agricultural purposes.
The compost derived from sewage sludge had a lower pH and a reduced organic matter content compared to the compost from garden and park waste. On the other hand, the content of macronutrients and micronutrients was higher in the compost made from sewage sludge. In compost D (sewage sludge + garden and park waste), the content of the analysed components was between composts B and C (Table 1).

2.2. Chemical Composition of Soil

The soil was classified as Haplic Cambisol-Cmha [35] and was collected from a field belonging to the Experimental Station of the University of Rzeszów in Krasne, near Rzeszów, Poland. Chemical analysis of the soil, both before and after the experiment, was conducted at the Regional Agricultural Station laboratory in Rzeszów, in accordance with Polish Standards. After the experiment, soil from each pot was sieved and chemically analysed.
Before the experiment, the soil exhibited a slightly acidic pH, an average organic matter content, and low Nmin levels. The macronutrient content was high, whereas the micronutrient content was average (Table 2).

2.3. Pot Experiment Conditions

Oat seeds of the “Bingo” variety (Strzelce Plant Breeding Ltd. IHAR Group, Poland) were treated with a “Seed Treatment 050 FS” preparation (difenoconazole—25 g, fludioxonil—25 g) at a dose of 200 mL of the product mixed with 800 mL of water per 100 kg of seed. On 4 April 2024, 350 seeds were sown in each pot. The pots were then placed in growth chambers (Model GC-300/1000; JEIO Tech Co., Ltd., Seoul, Republic of Korea) at a temperature of 20 ± 1 °C, with a relative humidity of 60 ± 3%, a photoperiod of 16/8 h (L/D), and a maximum light intensity of approximately 300 µmol m−2 s−1 during the day. Soil moisture was maintained at 60% of the field capacity. The positions of the pots were changed randomly every 7 days. At the end of the tillering stage (29 BBCH), the pots were transferred to a greenhouse with natural lighting and a temperature of 20 ± 1 °C.

2.4. Measurement Soil–Plant Analysis Development

SPAD (Soil–Plant Analysis Development) measurements were taken on the flag leaf (BBCH 39). The measurements were performed using a SPAD 502P chlorophyll meter (Konica Minolta, Inc., Tokyo, Japan).

2.5. Biometric and Qualitative Measurements

The experiment was conducted until the full grain maturity stage, after which the plants were harvested, and biometric measurements were taken, including the number of panicles per pot, plant height, number of grains per panicle, thousand-grain weight (TGW), and grain weight per pot (at a moisture content of 14%). Plant height (cm) was measured from the cutting point to the top of the panicle. The mass of one thousand seeds (g) and grain weight per pot were weighed on a scale with an accuracy of two decimal places. The moisture content in the threshed grain was measured using the gravimetric drying method, and the total protein content was determined by the Kjeldahl method in the Department of Plant Production laboratory at the University of Rzeszów. In the Kjeldahl method, the protein-to-nitrogen conversion factor was 6.25.

2.6. Statistical Analyses

One-way ANOVA was applied; Tukey’s post hoc test (p ≤ 0.05) was used to determine the significance of differences between the mean values of the studied parameters. Statistical analysis of the obtained results was performed using TIBCO Statistica 13.3.0 (TIBCO Software Inc., Palo Alto, CA, USA).

3. Results

3.1. Assessment of Soil Chemical Composition

The chemical composition of the soil (Table 3) significantly varied after the experiment between the fertilisation treatments. The lowest soil pH was recorded in the control treatment (A). In contrast, significantly higher pH values were observed after fertilisation with compost made from garden and park waste (C), sewage sludge + garden and park waste (D), and compost F.
The humus content was significantly increased by fertilisation with treatments C, D, and F compared to the control (A). The lowest Nmin, phosphorus, potassium, and boron content were observed in the control, while fertilisation with variant B increased the content of these nutrients. Fertilisation with variant E also positively affected the Nmin content, while variant D increased the phosphorus and boron content. All fertilisation treatments increased the magnesium content in the soil compared to the control. Among the studied micronutrients, only the boron content significantly varied across the different fertilisation treatments. Only an increasing trend was observed for the other micronutrients compared to the control.

3.2. Soil–Plant Analysis Development

The applied fertilisation significantly influenced plant nutritional status (SPAD) (Figure 1). The highest readings were obtained after fertilisation with compost E (sewage sludge) combined with additional nitrogen fertilisation (30 N kg ha−1). Similar results were achieved with fertilisation using compost G (sewage sludge + garden and park waste) combined with nitrogen fertilisation. The lowest SPAD readings, as expected, were obtained in the control group. Overall, using composts with sewage sludge and sawdust was more effective than using garden and park waste with sawdust. Additionally, better results were obtained in treatments where organic fertilisation (composts) was combined with mineral fertilisation (nitrogen).

3.3. Biometric Measurements of Plants and Yield Components

All fertilisation treatments significantly enhanced both the number of panicles per pot and the plant height compared to the control (Table 4). However, it is essential to highlight that plant height was notably higher after applying composts combined with mineral nitrogen (E and G) compared to those treated with composts without mineral nitrogen (B, C, D).
The number of grains per panicle was higher after applying composts or composts combined with mineral nitrogen than in the control. The fertilisation treatments E, F, G, and B had a more favourable effect on this yield component than treatments C and D.
The highest thousand-grain weight (TGW) was achieved after applying composts combined with mineral nitrogen fertilisation. However, it should be noted that applying composts alone, without additional mineral nitrogen, also increased TGW compared to the control treatments.
The largest grain mass per pot was achieved by applying sewage sludge compost and mineral nitrogen. It should be noted, however, that all fertilisation treatments positively affected the grain mass per pot compared to the control (Table 5).

3.4. Protein Content in Grain

The protein content in the grain was highest after applying sewage sludge compost combined with mineral nitrogen fertilisation (E). Significantly lower results were obtained in the remaining treatments. Oat grain from treatments F and G contained more protein than oat from treatments A, B, C, and D. The lowest protein content was observed in the control treatment, where no fertilisation was applied (Figure 2).

4. Discussion

Ensuring food security is particularly important for the growing human population, but protecting the agricultural environment is equally important. Therefore, in modern agriculture, reducing chemical production inputs and seeking alternative solutions is essential [7]. A good farming practice is composting organic waste as fertiliser for crops. This approach contributes to protecting the environment and promotes a circular economy. However, the fertilising value of composts varies and nutrients are released more slowly than in mineral fertilisers [36,37,38]. Proponents of composts argue that it is a good solution for recycling organic waste, while critics believe that some composts may contain elevated levels of heavy metals [39,40].
According to Erhart et al. [41], organic waste should be subjected to composting from both ecological and economic perspectives. However, they conclude that composts come from various sources and have different chemical compositions, meaning that plants’ response to their use is not always satisfactory.
The present study used different composts derived from sewage sludge and/or garden and park waste to fertilise oats. The compost originating from sewage sludge exhibited a lower pH and a reduced organic matter content than the compost derived from garden and park waste. In contrast, the sewage sludge compost showed higher concentrations of both macronutrients and micronutrients (Table 1). The application of composts was found to be beneficial compared to the control (no fertilisation), particularly with compost derived from sewage sludge. However, the most favourable results were observed when composts were combined with mineral nitrogen, as evidenced by the plant nutritional status (SPAD) measurements and the resulting grain yield.
SPAD measurements on leaves are commonly used to determine the optimal nitrogen dose during the plant’s growing season [42,43]. Kremper et al. [21] demonstrated that optimal oat grain yield can be achieved with SPAD values above 40, which aligns with our results (Figure 1). Numerous studies [44,45,46] have shown that nitrogen fertilisation significantly increases plants’ chlorophyll content, positively influencing grain yield. This correlation highlights the critical role of nitrogen in optimising plant growth and productivity, which was also shown in our experiment.
Qiao et al. [47] report that the nitrogen requirements of oats vary widely, ranging from 90 to 180 kg·ha−1. However, they emphasise the importance of avoiding the over-fertilisation of plants. Wang et al. [48] confirm that excessive application of nitrogen fertilisers is inefficient, increases production costs, and contributes to environmental pollution. Bibi et al. [49] and Mao et al. [50] demonstrated that the effectiveness of nitrogen fertilisation depends on several factors, including site-specific conditions. Therefore, nitrogen application rates should be determined rationally.
Raja et al. [51] state that organic and inorganic fertilisers significantly impact crop yields. However, the nutrient value of organic fertilisers persists over subsequent years, which allows for a reduction in the application of mineral fertilisers. Jayanthi et al. [52] demonstrated that combined mineral–organic fertilisation is an effective approach. As a result of this fertilisation, they obtained high-yield and high-quality oat yields. Postnikov et al. [53] demonstrated that organic–mineral fertilisation resulted in a 55.3% increase in oat yield compared to the control (no fertilisation). Kara et al. [54] reported that all the composts tested increased plant yield, ranging from 6% to 45% compared to the control treatments. Additionally, the composts improved soil fertility for subsequent crops. Erhart et al. [41] demonstrated that crop yields increased by 7 to 10% after applying composts compared to a control without fertilisation. The plants’ response to compost fertilisation was initially very low but increased over time as the experiment progressed. For cereals, it was shown that nitrogen availability was insufficient for plants at specific developmental stages. Malhi et al. [55] argue that the proper amount of nutrients in the soil is crucial during the early stages of plant growth. However, the maximum nutrient uptake occurs during phases of intensive biomass growth.
This study confirmed that the effectiveness of oat fertilisation depends on the fertilisation treatment used. The seed weight from the pot was highest after applying compost from sewage sludge with additional mineral nitrogen. The difference obtained compared to the control was 292.2 g. However, it should be noted that the other fertilisation treatments also positively affected the seed weight from the pot compared to the control (Table 5).
Kara et al. [54] report that the content of N, P, K, Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn in seven different compost mixtures ranged from 4.03 to 9.24 g kg−1; 0.09 to 0.92 g kg−1; 10.0 to 24.2 g kg−1; 5.3 to 14.2 mg kg−1; 1.50 to 2.80 mg kg−1; 6.20 to 12.3 mg kg−1; and 19.7 to 27.2 mg kg−1, respectively. The pH ranged from 6.85 to 8.32, and the C/N ratio ranged from 8.9 to 28.2. Postnikov et al. [53] demonstrated that after compost application, the content of heavy metals in the soil and grain did not exceed permissible concentrations. However, they suggest that this may change with prolonged use of composts.
The study’s results reveal that, by the end of the experiment, the chemical composition of the soil varied significantly across the different fertilisation variants. The lowest soil pH and nutrient content were observed in the control group (A). Fertilisation with variants C, D, and F significantly increased the organic matter content compared to the control (A). Among the trace elements analysed, only boron content was significantly different between the fertilisation variants (Table 3). However, the increase in the content of other trace elements in the soil was not statistically significant compared to the control.
Similar results were obtained by other authors [56,57,58,59], who reported that compost increased the nutrient content in oat grains. Ciolek et al. [60] and Sułek et al. [61] demonstrated that genetic factors, environmental conditions, and applied agronomic practices influence the chemical composition of oat grains. The higher the intensity of the cultivation technology, the higher the total protein content and the levels of essential and non-essential amino acids. Mantai et al. [9] and Zhu et al. [10] found that nitrogen fertilisation increased the crude protein content but decreased the crude fibre content in oat grains. In the present study, the highest protein content in oat grain was observed following fertilisation with compost E. Grain from treatments F and G also had higher protein levels compared to treatments A, B, C, and D. The lowest protein content was recorded in the control treatment, where no fertilisation was applied (Figure 2).
Pecio and Bichonski [62] reported that grain yield is primarily influenced by the number of grains per panicle, while the thousand-grain weight (TGW) plays a lesser role. Similarly, Ju et al. [2] demonstrated that grain yield is primarily determined by the number of grains per panicle; however, when high nitrogen doses were applied, a significant increase in TGW was observed, contributing to a higher overall grain yield.
In the present study, the number of grains per panicle was higher after applying composts or composts combined with mineral nitrogen compared to the control treatment. Fertilisation treatments E, F, G, and B had a more favourable effect on this yield component than treatments C and D. The highest TGW was recorded in treatments where composts were supplemented with mineral nitrogen. However, it should be noted that even the application of composts without additional mineral nitrogen resulted in an increase in TGW compared to the control (Table 5).
According to Ahmad et al. [63], mineral fertilisers are effective and readily available to plants, whereas organic fertilisers act more slowly but are more environmentally friendly. Therefore, integrated organic–mineral fertilisation represents a beneficial strategy in oat cultivation. Our experimental findings corroborate the efficacy of this integrated fertilisation approach in enhancing oat productivity while maintaining environmental sustainability.

5. Conclusions

The chemical composition of the soil at the end of the oat cultivation experiment with organic–mineral fertilisation showed significant variation between treatments. The lowest nutrient content, particularly of macronutrients, was recorded in the control treatment. SPAD measurements indicated that composts derived from sewage sludge were more effective than those made from garden and park waste. Moreover, better results were observed when organic fertilisation (composts) was combined with mineral nitrogen fertilisation. While the remaining fertilisation treatments resulted in lower values, they still outperformed the control. Therefore, compost application—especially when supplemented with mineral nitrogen—can be recommended as an effective agricultural practice. Future studies should focus on evaluating the fertilising value of composts for subsequent crops.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, W.J., A.Z., J.K.-S. and M.H.; methodology, W.J., A.Z., J.K.-S. and M.M.; formal analysis, W.J., A.Z., J.K.-S. and P.D.; data curation, W.J. and A.Z.; writing—original draft preparation, W.J., A.Z., J.K.-S., M.M., M.H. and P.D.; writing—review and editing, W.J., A.Z., J.K.-S. and M.M.; visualisation, W.J., A.Z. and M.M.; supervision, W.J.; project administration, W.J.; funding acquisition, W.J. and A.Z. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

  1. Murphy, J.P.; Hoffman, L.A. The origin, history, and production of oat. Oat Sci. Technol. 1992, 33, 1–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Ju, Z.; Liu, K.; Zhao, G.; Ma, X.; Jia, Z. Nitrogen fertilizer and sowing density affect flag leaf photosynthetic characteristics, grain yield, and yield components of oat in a semiarid region of northwest China. Agronomy 2022, 12, 2108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Rodrigues, V.L.; Dessureault, P.L.; Marty, C.; Boucher, J.F.; Paré, M.C. Life cycle assessment of oat flake production with two end-of-life options for agro-industrial residue management. Sustainability 2023, 15, 5124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Kumar, L.; Sehrawat, R.; Kong, Y. Oat proteins: A perspective on functional properties. LWT 2021, 152, 112307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Condron, L.M.; Cameron, K.C.; Di, H.J.; Clough, T.J.; Forbes, E.A.; McLaren, R.G.; Silva, R.G. A comparison of soil and environmental quality under organic and conventional farming systems in New Zealand. N. Z. J. Agric. Res. 2000, 43, 443–466. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Raza, S.; Miao, N.; Wang, P.; Ju, X.; Chen, Z.; Zhou, J.; Kuzyakov, Y. Dramatic loss of inorganic carbon by nitrogen-induced soil acidification in Chinese croplands. Glob. Change Biol. 2020, 26, 3738–3751. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  7. Biswas, S.; Das, R. Role of Integrated Nutrient Management on Oat: A Review. Int. J. Environ. Clim. Change 2022, 12, 66–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Bytyqi, B.; Kutasy, E. Leaf reflectance characteristics and yield of spring oat varieties as influenced by varietal divergences and nutritional supply. Acta Agrar. Debreceniensis 2023, 1, 29–34. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Mantai, R.D.; da Silva, J.A.; Carbonera, R.; Carvalho, I.R.; Lautenchleger, F.; Pereira, L.M. Technical and agronomic efficiency of nitrogen use on the yield and quality of oat grains. Rev. Bras. Eng. Agric. E Ambient. 2021, 25, 529–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Zhu, G.; Xu, Z.; Xu, Y.; Lu, H.; Ji, Z.; Zhou, G. Different types of fertilizers enhanced salt resistance of oat and associated physiological mechanisms in saline soils. Agronomy 2022, 12, 317. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Svensson, K.; Odlare, M.; Pell, M. The fertilizing effect of compost and biogas residues from source separated household waste. J. Agric. Sci. 2004, 142, 461–467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Gondek, K. Cadmium and lead content in oat and soil fertilized with composts. Pol. J. Nat. Sci. 2008, 23, 740–753. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Zorpas, A.A. Sewage sludge compost evaluation in oats, pepper and eggplant cultivation. Dyn. Soil Dyn. Plant-Glob. Sci. Books 2008, 2, 103–109. [Google Scholar]
  14. Gondek, K.; Filipek-Mazur, B.; Tlustoš, P. Heavy metal concentrations in oats and their availability in soil fertilized with composts. Electron. J. Pol. Agric. Univ. 2008, 11, 25. Available online: http://www.ejpau.media.pl/volume11/issue4/art-25.html (accessed on 6 May 2024).
  15. Hoehne, L.; de Lima, C.V.; Martini, M.C.; Altmayer, T.; Brietzke, D.T.; Finatto, J.; Gonçalves, T.E.; Granada, C.E. Addition of vermicompost to heavy metal-contaminated soil increases the ability of black oat (Avena strigosa Schreb) plants to remove Cd, Cr, and Pb. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2016, 227, 443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Moser, R.G.; Bilck, A.P.; Yamashita, F.; Chies, L.G.; Presumido, P.H.; Meneses, R.M.; Michels, R.N.; Dal Bosco, T.C. Biodegradable material formulated with oat hulls in the composting process of household organic waste and tree pruning. Rev. AIDIS Ing. Y Cienc. Ambientales. Investig. Desarro. Y Práctica 2022, 15, 773–788. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Black, G.P.; Wong, L.; Young, T.M. Uptake of per-and polyfluorinated alkyl substances by dry farmed oats following the agricultural application of biosolids and compost. Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts 2025, 3, 661–669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Douds, D.D., Jr.; Galvez, L.; Franke-Snyder, M.; Reider, C.; Drinkwater, L.E. Effect of compost addition and crop rotation point upon VAM fungi. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 1997, 65, 257–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Arvanitoyannis, I.S.; Tserkezou, P. Wheat, barley and oat waste: A comparative and critical presentation of methods and potential uses of treated waste. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2008, 43, 694–725. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Messiga, A.J.; Sharifi, M.; Munroe, S. Combinations of cover crop mixtures and bio-waste composts enhance biomass production and nutrients accumulation: A greenhouse study. Renew. Agric. Food Syst. 2016, 31, 507–515. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Kremper, R.; Juhász, E.K.; Novák, T.; Kincses, I.; Sándor, Z.; Tállai, M.; Béni, Á.; Szabó, A.; Szarvas, S.; Balla Kovács, A. Assessment of spring oat nitrogen supply based on plant sap nitrate concentration and SPAD values. Nitrogen 2025, 6, 19. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Xiong, D.; Chen, J.; Yu, T.; Gao, W.; Ling, X.; Li, Y.; Peng, S.; Huang, J. SPAD-based leaf nitrogen estimation is impacted by environmental factors and crop leaf characteristics. Sci. Rep. 2015, 5, 13389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Helgason, B.L.; Larney, F.J.; Janzen, H.H.; Olson, B.M. Nitrogen dynamics in soil amended with composted cattle manure. Can. J. Soil Sci. 2007, 87, 43–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Carneiro, J.P.; Coutinho, J.; Trindade, H. Nitrate leaching from a maize× oats double-cropping forage system fertilized with organic residues under Mediterranean conditions. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2012, 160, 29–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Mary, K.; Jha, S.K.; Luikham, E.; Joseph, R. Effect of integrated nutrient management on yield and economics of fodder oat (Avena sativa L.). Pharm. Innov. J. 2022, 11, 1211–1214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Omondi, E.C.; Wagner, M.; Mukherjee, A.; Nichols, K. Long-term organic and conventional farming effects on nutrient density of oats. Renew. Agric. Food Syst. 2022, 37, 113–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Stanojković-Sebić, A.; Poštić, D.; Jovković, M.; Pivić, R. Yield, morphological traits, and physiological parameters of organic and pelleted Avena sativa L. Plants under different fertilization practices. Biol. Life Sci. Forum 2025, 41, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Ochiai, S.; Iwabuchi, K.; Itoh, T.; Watanabe, T.; Osaki, M.; Taniguro, K. Effects of different feedstock type and carbonization temperature of biochar on oat growth and nitrogen uptake in coapplication with compost. J. Soil Sci. Plant Nutr. 2021, 21, 276–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Sullivan, D.; Bary, A.; Nartea, T.; Myrhe, E.; Cogger, C.; Fransen, S. Nitrogen availability seven years after a high-rate food waste compost application. Compos. Sci. Util. 2003, 11, 265–275. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Sullivan, D.; Bary, A.; Thomas, D.; Fransen, S.; Cogger, C. Food waste compost effects on fertilizer nitrogen efficiency, available nitrogen, and tall fescue yield. Soil. Sci. Soc. Am. J. 2002, 66, 154–161. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Ross, C.L.; Mundschenk, E.; Wilken, V.; Sensel-Gunke, K.; Ellmer, F. Biowaste digestates: Influence of pelletization on nutrient release and early plant development of oats. Waste Biomass Valorization 2018, 9, 335–341. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Godara, A.S.; Gupta, U.S.; Singh, R. Effect of integrated nutrient management on herbage, dry fodder yield and quality of oat (Avena sativa L.). Forage Res. 2012, 38, 59–61. [Google Scholar]
  33. Meier, U. Growth Stages of Mono- and Dicotyledonous Plants. In BBCH Monograph; Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry: Berlin/Braunschweig, Germany, 2018; p. 158. Available online: https://www.julius-kuehn.de/media/Veroeffentlichungen/bbch%20epaper%20en/page.pdf (accessed on 20 March 2025).
  34. Rozporządzenie Ministra Środowiska z dnia 6 lutego 2015 r. w sprawie stosowania komunalnych osadów ściekowych. Dz.U. 2015 poz. 257 (in Polish). Regulation of the Minister of Environment of 6 February 2015 on the use of municipal sewage sludge. Journal of Laws 2015, item 257. Ministerstwo Šrodowiska. 2015. Available online: https://isap.sejm.gov.pl/isap.nsf/DocDetails.xsp?id=wdu20150000257 (accessed on 19 February 2025).
  35. IUSS Wosrking Group WRB World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, First Update. 2015. Available online: https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/bcdecec7-f45f-4dc5-beb1-97022d29fab4/content (accessed on 20 May 2025).
  36. Horrocks, A.; Curtin, D.; Tregurtha, C.; Meenken, E. Municipal compost as a nutrient source for organic crop production in New Zealand. Agronomy 2016, 6, 35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Zapałowska, A.; Jarecki, W. The impact of using different types of compost on the growth and yield of corn. Sustainability 2024, 16, 511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Zapałowska, A.; Jarecki, W.; Skwiercz, A.; Malewski, T. Optimization of compost and peat mixture ratios for production of pepper seedlings. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025, 26, 442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Hargreaves, J.; Adl, M.; Warman, P. A review of the use of composted municipal solid waste in agriculture. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2008, 123, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Ansar, A.; Du, J.; Javed, Q.; Adnan, M.; Javaid, I. Biodegradable waste in compost production: A Review of its economic potential. Nitrogen 2025, 6, 24. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Erhart, E.; Hartl, W.; Putz, B. Biowaste compost affects yield, nitrogen supply during the vegetation period and crop quality of agricultural crops. Eur. J. Agron. 2005, 23, 305–314. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Zhang, J.; Blackmer, A.M.; Ellsworth, J.W.; Koehler, K.J. Sensitivity of chlorophyll meters for diagnosing nitrogen deficiencies of corn in production agriculture. Agron. J. 2008, 100, 543–550. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Rhezali, A.; Aissaoui, A.E. Feasibility study of using absolute SPAD values for standardized evaluation of corn nitrogen status. Nitrogen 2021, 2, 298–307. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Chen, L.; Dick, W.A.; Streeter, J.G.; Hoitink, H.A. Fe chelates from compost microorganisms improve Fe nutrition of soybean and oat. Plant Soil 1998, 200, 139–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Song, X.; Zhou, G.; Ma, B.L.; Wu, W.; Ahmad, I.; Zhu, G.; Yan, W.; Jiao, X. Nitrogen application improved photosynthetic productivity, chlorophyll fluorescence, yield and yield components of two oat genotypes under saline conditions. Agronomy 2019, 9, 115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Azeem, A.; Mai, W.; Gul, B.; Rasheed, A. Influence of soil amendment application on growth and yield of Hedysarum scoparium Fisch. et Mey and Avena sativa L. under saline conditions in dry-land regions. Plants 2025, 14, 855. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Qiao, Y.; Zhao, L.; Gao, D.; Zhang, L.; Guo, L.; Ge, J.; Fan, Y.; Wang, Y.; Yan, Z. Study on optimal nitrogen application for different oat varieties in dryland regions of the loess plateau. Plants 2024, 13, 2956. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  48. Wang, Y.; Liu, K.; Liang, G.; Jia, Z.; Ju, Z.; Ma, X.; Zhou, Q. Comprehensive evaluation of low nitrogen tolerance in oat (Avena sativa L.) seedlings. Agronomy 2023, 13, 604. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Bibi, H.; Hameed, S.; Iqbal, M.; Al-Barty, A.; Darwish, H.; Khan, A.; Anwar, S.; Mian, I.A.; Ali, M.; Zia, A.; et al. Evaluation of exotic oat (Avena sativa L.) varieties for forage and grain yield in response to different levels of nitrogen and phosphorous. Peer J. 2021, 9, e12112. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Mao, L.; Zhang, H.; Yang, Z.; Li, Y.; Shen, Y. Site-specific effects of fertilizer on hay and grain yields of oats: Evidence from large-scale field experiments. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2025, 105, 2429–2439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Raja, W.; Hussain, A.; Sheikh, T.A.; Ul-Haq, A.; Allam, I.; Teli, N.A. Direct and residual effect of organic and chemical sources of nutrients on fodder sorghum-fodder oat cropping sequence. Indian. J. Agric. Res. 2019, 53, 108–111. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Jayanthi, C.; Malarvizhi, P.; Fazullah Khan, A.K.; Chinnusamy, C. Integrated nutrient management in forage oat (Avena sativa). Indian J. Agron. 2002, 47, 130–133. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Postnikov, D.A.; Merzlaya, G.E.; Fedulova, A.D. Effects of long-term fertilization systems on heavy metals residues in sod-podzolic soil and oats yield. Indian J. Agric. Res. 2021, 55, 329–334. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Kara, E.; Saltalı, K.; Özdilek, H. Potentiality of some agricultural residues and industrial wastes as manure. KSU J. Nat. Sci. 2011, 14, 18–27. [Google Scholar]
  55. Malhi, S.S.; Johnston, A.M.; Schoenau, J.J.; Wang, Z.L.; Vera, C.L. Seasonal biomass accumulation and nutrient uptake of wheat, barley and oat on a black chernozem soil in Saskatchewan. Can. J. Plant Sci. 2006, 86, 1005–1014. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  56. Wyszkowski, M.; Radziemska, M. Assessment of tri-and hexavalent chromium phytotoxicity on oats (Avena sativa L.) biomass and content of nitrogen compounds. Water Air Soil Pollut. 2013, 224, 1619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Kosiorek, M.; Wyszkowski, M. Content of macronutrients in oat (Avena sativa L.) after remediation of soil polluted with cobalt. Environ. Monit. Assess. 2019, 191, 389. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Wilson, M.L.; Evans, E.E.; Klossner, L.; Pagliari, P.H. Organic oat response to variety, seeding rate, and nutrient source and rate. Agronomy 2021, 11, 1418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Jannoura, R.; Joergensen, R.G.; Bruns, C. Organic fertilizer effects on growth, crop yield, and soil microbial biomass indices in sole and intercropped peas and oats under organic farming conditions. Eur. J. Agron. 2014, 52, 259–270. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Ciolek, A.; Makarska, E.; Wesolowski, M.; Cierpiala, R. Content of selected nutrients in wheat, barley, and oat grain from organic and conventional farming. J. Elem. 2012, 17, 181–189. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Sułek, A.; Cacak-Pietrzak, G.; Rózewicz, M.; Nieróbca, A.; Studnicki, M.; Podolska, G. Influence of production technology intensity on the yield and amino acid profile of the grain protein of different sowing oat (Avena sativa L.) cultivars. Agronomy 2025, 15, 803. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Pecio, A.; Bichonski, A. Nitrogen fertilization and fungicide application as elements of oat production. Pol. J. Environ. Stud. 2010, 19, 1297–1305. [Google Scholar]
  63. Ahmad, A.H.; Wahid, A.; Khalidg, F.; Fiaz, N.; Zamir, M.S.I. Impact of organic and inorganic sources of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers on growth, yield and quality of forage oat (Avena sativa L.). Cercet. Agron. în Mold. 2011, 44, 39–49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Nitrogen 06 00076 g001
Figure 1. Soil–plant analysis development (SPAD). A–G—fertilisation treatments. Different lowercase letters in the columns indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). The standard error is marked on the columns.
Figure 1. Soil–plant analysis development (SPAD). A–G—fertilisation treatments. Different lowercase letters in the columns indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). The standard error is marked on the columns.
Nitrogen 06 00076 g001
Nitrogen 06 00076 g002
Figure 2. Protein content in grain (% d.m.). A–G—fertilisation treatments. Different lowercase letters in the columns indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). The standard error is marked on the columns.
Figure 2. Protein content in grain (% d.m.). A–G—fertilisation treatments. Different lowercase letters in the columns indicate significant differences (p < 0.05). The standard error is marked on the columns.
Nitrogen 06 00076 g002
Table 1. Chemical composition of composts.
Table 1. Chemical composition of composts.
ParameterUnitBCD
pH in 1 mol/L KCl-5.96.86.3
Dry matter%30.244.136.7
N%3.81.52.6
P2O5g⸱kg−1 d.m.9.82.66.7
K2O5.34.64.9
Mg3.12.83.0
Femg⸱kg−1 d.m.4523.32369.43355.1
Zn246.374.9161.2
Mn282.868.3172.6
Cu68.344.856.2
B–D—fertilisation treatments.
Table 2. Chemical analysis of the soil before setting up the experiment.
Table 2. Chemical analysis of the soil before setting up the experiment.
ParameterUnitResults
pH in 1 mol/L KCl-6.2
Humus%1.85
Nminkg∙ha−155.2
P2O5mg⸱100 g−1 soil18.6
K2O21.3
Mg8.5
Femg⸱kg−1 soil2652.3
Zn18.6
Mn362.5
Cu5.3
B2.1
Table 3. Chemical analysis of the soil after the pot experiment.
Table 3. Chemical analysis of the soil after the pot experiment.
ParameterUnitABCDEFG
pH in 1 mol/L KCl-5.9 c6.1 bc6.5 a6.3 ab6.0 bc6.3 ab6.2 abc
Humus%1.81 b1.88 ab1.95 a1.91 a1.85 ab1.91 a1.87 ab
Nminkg∙ha−150.6 c54.6 a53.1 bc53.5 ab54.9 a53.3 ab53.7 ab
P2O5mg⸱100 g−1 soil17.5 c19.8 a18.3 ab19.1 a18.4 ab17.9 bc18.1 ab
K2O18.3 c21.2 a20.3 b20.6 ab20.8 ab20.1 b20.2 b
Mg7.6 b8.3 a8.6 a8.5 a8.1 a8.5 a8.3 a
Femg⸱kg−1 soil2635.2 a2685.3 a2655.3 a2671.3 a2681.2 a2648.3 a2661.7 a
Zn15.6 a16.0 a15.7 a15.8 a15.8 a15.7 a15.8 a
Mn360.4 a366.5 a364.3 a365.2 a363.4 a358.2 a360.2 a
Cu5.0 a5.3 a5.1 a5.2 a5.2 a5.1 a5.1 a
B1.75 c1.82 a1.77 bc1.81 a1.79 abc1.76 bc1.78 abc
A-G—fertilisation treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
Table 4. Compost fertilisation effects on panicle production and plant height.
Table 4. Compost fertilisation effects on panicle production and plant height.
Fertilisation TreatmentNumber of Panicles in a PotPlant Height (cm)
A378.3 b83.6 d
B393.3 a94.2 bc
C386.3 a90.3 c
D390.3 a91.8 c
E391.5 a98.6 a
F388.3 a95.4 ab
G390.2 a97.1 a
A–G—fertilisation treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
Table 5. The effect of compost fertilisation on yield components.
Table 5. The effect of compost fertilisation on yield components.
Fertilisation TreatmentsNumber of Grains in a PanicleThousand-Grain Weight (g)Grain Mass per Pot (g)
A20.2 c22.6 e172.7 e
B30.3 ab30.6 c364.7 c
C28.3 b28.7 d313.8 d
D29.5 b29.1 cd335.1 d
E32.8 a36.2 a464.9 a
F30.9 ab33.9 b406.8 b
G31.5 a34.1 ab419.1 b
A–G—fertilisation treatments. Different lowercase letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05).
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Jarecki, W.; Korczyk-Szabó, J.; Macák, M.; Zapałowska, A.; Daneshwar, P.; Habán, M. Response of Oats to Fertilisation with Compost and Mineral Nitrogen in a Pot Experiment. Nitrogen 2025, 6, 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6030076

AMA Style

Jarecki W, Korczyk-Szabó J, Macák M, Zapałowska A, Daneshwar P, Habán M. Response of Oats to Fertilisation with Compost and Mineral Nitrogen in a Pot Experiment. Nitrogen. 2025; 6(3):76. https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6030076

Chicago/Turabian Style

Jarecki, Wacław, Joanna Korczyk-Szabó, Milan Macák, Anita Zapałowska, Puchooa Daneshwar, and Miroslav Habán. 2025. "Response of Oats to Fertilisation with Compost and Mineral Nitrogen in a Pot Experiment" Nitrogen 6, no. 3: 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6030076

APA Style

Jarecki, W., Korczyk-Szabó, J., Macák, M., Zapałowska, A., Daneshwar, P., & Habán, M. (2025). Response of Oats to Fertilisation with Compost and Mineral Nitrogen in a Pot Experiment. Nitrogen, 6(3), 76. https://doi.org/10.3390/nitrogen6030076

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop