Addressing Thermal Comfort and Loneliness in Aging Societies: An Interdisciplinary Educational Research Approach

Abstract

The challenges posed by aging populations and increasing rates of social isolation necessitate a rethinking of the manner in which housing and urban environments can support elderly well-being. This study explores the role of interdisciplinary educational research in addressing two key challenges faced by older adults living alone: thermal comfort and loneliness. The research, which was conducted in the Basque Country, Spain, involved six Final Degree Projects (FDPs) developed within a Research-Based Learning (RBL) framework by undergraduate students in architecture and engineering. These projects were embedded in two applied research initiatives, Etxelagun and Kalelagun, which monitored private dwellings and public spaces to evaluate environmental comfort and social inclusion. The student teams conducted fieldwork, interviews, environmental audits, and co-design processes with elderly participants and stakeholders from public administration, social services, and health sectors. The results demonstrate how the physical and social characteristics of the built environment influence autonomy, thermal comfort, and opportunities for interaction. The proposals developed address accessibility, climate-adaptive design, and age-friendly urban strategies. Survey results demonstrate that the RBL approach enhances students’ sensitivity and commitment to social challenges. The study concludes that interdisciplinary, context-sensitive educational research can produce actionable design solutions while cultivating future professionals equipped to respond to the complex needs of aging societies.

1. Introduction

People are living longer and healthier lives than ever before. Along with increasing longevity, the European Union (EU) is witnessing a general aging of the population, which brings both opportunities and challenges. Demographic change significantly influences our economies, healthcare, and welfare systems, as well as housing and infrastructure needs. Loneliness or social isolation has emerged as one of the primary challenges confronting our society. In itself, it can be a factor affecting people’s health, and it becomes particularly critical in the case of the elderly.

A notable demographic shift has occurred in the age structure: in 2023, individuals aged 65 years or older accounted for 21.3% of the total population, compared to 16.3% in 2003 and 18.3% in 2013. Projections suggest this age group will represent 32.5% of the EU population by 2100 [1].

Life expectancy in the EU has shown consistent improvement, rising from 77.7 years in 2003 to 81.5 years in 2023. A significant gender disparity persists, with European women living on average 5.3 years longer than men do (84.2 years versus 78.9 years, respectively).

According to official Eurostat statistics (2024) [2], Spain exhibits one of the highest life expectancies among EU member states. The available data indicate an overall life expectancy at birth of 83.2 years. This aggregate figure masks significant gender disparities, with Spanish women demonstrating a life expectancy of 85.9 years compared to 80.5 years for their male counterparts [2]. These statistics reflect Spain’s position as a country with particularly favorable longevity indicators within the European context [3]. These findings warrant consideration in discussions of healthcare system performance, aging population dynamics, and gender-based health disparities in Southern Europe.

With regard to living arrangements, Eurostat (2023) [4] reports that 30,238,300 elderly individuals, representing 6.7% of the total EU population, live alone, with women accounting for 71.3% of this demographic. This phenomenon is particularly evident in Spain. According to the Spanish National Statistics Institute (INE), 23.8% of individuals aged 65 and over resided alone in 2020, with women constituting 70.9% of this demographic [3]. The discrepancy becomes more pronounced with advancing age: among individuals aged 80 and above, 33.9% resided alone, and of these, 77.7% were female. These figures underscore the gendered nature of aging and the heightened probability of social isolation, particularly within the most senior age brackets. These groups frequently necessitate more intensive care and social support.

The economic data obtained from 2022 [5] serve to underscore the pervasive nature of gender disparities with regard to later-life income in Spain. According to the INE, the mean annual net income for males aged 65 and over was EUR 15,118, in comparison to EUR 14,481 for females in the corresponding age group. This results in a gender income disparity of EUR 637. This discrepancy is attributed to structural factors, such as women’s more frequent career interruptions due to caregiving responsibilities, the higher prevalence of part-time employment, and the concentration of women in lower-paying economic sectors. These factors contribute to reduced pension entitlements. The findings emphasize the nexus between demographic aging and gendered economic inequality, with substantial ramifications for social policy and the conceptualization of elderly care systems in Spain.

Healthy aging goes beyond the absence of disease; it entails the creation of physical, social, and digital environments that support autonomy, safety, connectivity, and active participation in society. Yet, most dwellings and urban public spaces are designed for static, conventional family units, and do not accommodate the physical or social changes that come with aging. This mismatch often contributes to reduced autonomy, social disengagement, and a heightened risk of loneliness. Recent scholarship has underscored the significance of multi-sensory approaches to environmental comfort in urban design, particularly concerning vulnerable populations [6].

Recent research has clearly demonstrated the significant role of the built environment (BE) in promoting healthy and active aging. Research has demonstrated a clear link between the physical layout of housing and public spaces, accessibility, and their sensory qualities, and the mobility, autonomy, and social engagement of older adults [7,8,9]. Inclusive urban design models place emphasis on principles such as universal accessibility, climate-adaptive design, and the integration of green and blue infrastructure to support active lifestyles and mitigate environmental stressors.

The global pandemic of Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has brought the issue of loneliness sharply back into public consciousness, underscoring its wide-ranging social, health, and economic implications [10,11,12,13,14]. In this context, the figures and trends presented primarily reflect the situation across the European Union, except where a different geographic scope is specified. Although loneliness is not a new phenomenon, the pandemic greatly increased its visibility. As a result, scholars and policymakers are increasingly referring to it as a “loneliness epidemic”.

A comparative analysis of pre-2016 and pandemic-period data (April–July 2020) was conducted by the Joint Research Centre (2020), revealing a marked increase in reported loneliness across European populations. The findings emphasize the pivotal role of the pandemic in exacerbating social isolation and mental health challenges, particularly among vulnerable groups [15,16,17,18]. Recent studies have repeatedly indicated that individuals grappling with a state of social isolation are predisposed to elevated risks of premature mortality. The present findings are commensurate with those associated with well-established health hazards, such as smoking and obesity. Furthermore, social isolation has been associated with an elevated risk of cognitive decline, including dementia, as well as an increased susceptibility to cardiovascular disease and stroke [19,20,21].

A growing body of work has also examined how the spatial characteristics of neighborhoods, housing layouts, and public amenities influence social connectedness and loneliness [22] have highlighted how spatial segregation and limited access to shared spaces can exacerbate social isolation among older adults, while [23] studies reveal that access to convivial public realms can mitigate loneliness by fostering informal encounters. These findings align with the broader understanding that social interaction is not solely a personal choice, but is also shaped by the affordances and constraints embedded in the BE.

In view of the challenges that aging societies will increasingly encounter, it is imperative to train future professionals, most notably architects and engineers, with both technical expertise and a profound understanding of the social and health needs of older adults. The approach must therefore be multidisciplinary and, in addition to purely technical aspects, must consider knowledge of social and health aspects. In the engineering and architecture teaching programs of the UPV-EHU, no work is undertaken on these social and health aspects, which prevents graduates from being aware of the dimension of the problem and from committing themselves to the problem.

In the field of housing, [24] research has emphasized the interplay between thermal comfort, housing quality, and the sustainability of interventions aimed at aging populations. Poorly adapted housing can exacerbate thermal stress, particularly during heatwaves or cold spells, increasing health risks for older adults. As demonstrated in [25] study, there is compelling evidence to suggest that built environment interventions have the capacity to influence not only perceived comfort and quality of life, but also physiological markers of health. This emphasizes the importance of integrating

To equip undergraduate students with the competencies required to design environments that promote active aging, it is important to implement active learning methodologies that expose them to real-world multidisciplinary challenges. Research-Based Learning (RBL) is a pedagogical approach that integrates research into the educational process, thereby offering an effective methodology. RBL facilitates student engagement in research projects, equipping them with the requisite knowledge and methodologies. This engagement fosters collaboration with professionals from diverse fields, thereby enabling the students to contribute to the resolution of authentic problems. This, in turn, serves to enhance their motivation, critical thinking skills, and social engagement.

In addition to traditional field measurements and surveys, recent advancements in environmental monitoring and modeling provide the capability to predict and manage comfort-related variables in real time. For instance, machine learning approaches have been successfully applied to forecast environmental conditions such as air quality, ozone concentration, and particulate matter levels. These approaches have demonstrated high predictive accuracy in diverse urban contexts [26,27,28]. In future research, these methods could complement qualitative approaches to better understand how environmental stressors influence elderly well-being.

To address these challenges, an educational research project has been launched in the University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), focusing on how built environments and housing design affect loneliness and thermal comfort among elderly individuals. This initiative incorporates an RBL methodology involving undergraduate students from the UPV/EHU in the development of six Bachelor’s degree final projects. These theses integrate architectural, engineering, and social science perspectives through real-world case studies and participatory design processes. This methodology is developed in parallel with two research projects: Etxelagun and Kalelagun. Some of the lecturers who developed the methodology also participate in the research projects. In this way, the students can work with each other, with the lecturers, and also with the researchers who participate in the working group of these two projects. The working groups of these projects integrate academia, social services, health professionals, construction professionals, and public administration.

This study establishes three fundamental educational objectives: (1) to educate and raise awareness among engineering and architecture students about the specific needs of elderly populations; (2) to enhance students’ capacity for interdisciplinary and socially engaged design; and (3) to develop professional competencies that prepare graduates to address the growing demands of this significant demographic sector in the labour market. This study offers a dual contribution: enriching higher education with socially relevant research, and providing a cooperative interdisciplinary working scenario to our undergraduate students.

2. Materials and Methods

This research adopts a qualitative, applied, and exploratory methodology aimed at investigating how educational processes in engineering and architecture can contribute to addressing the challenges of healthy aging and social inclusion among elderly populations. The methodological design is grounded in the evaluation of 6 Final Degree Projects (FDPs) developed by undergraduate students within an RBL framework. These theses serve as both educational tools and case studies for exploring interdisciplinary solutions to issues of aging, housing, and urban well-being.

The 6 FDPs were developed in the context of an interdisciplinary educational initiative that aimed to align technical training with pressing societal needs, specifically the improvement of quality of life for older adults. The RBL approach was central to the methodology, as it allowed students to engage in active, student-centered learning through the development of real-world projects. This pedagogical model fosters problem-solving, critical thinking, and interdisciplinary collaboration by considering real-world professional scenarios in the fields of urban planning and architectural design.

The selection of FDPs followed the standard protocol at the EHU-UPV. Students have the opportunity to select from a curated list of topics proposed by faculty members involved in the Etxelagun and Kalelagun research projects, or propose their own topics for approval by their School’s committee. Participation was thus voluntary and based on student interest, which may introduce self-selection bias towards those with greater social awareness and motivation to address aging-related issues.

To reinforce this concept, the students’ work is incorporated into the research conducted within two ongoing research projects led by their FDP supervisors.

Within this framework, students were encouraged to identify concrete problems related to aging in the built environment, formulate research questions and hypotheses grounded in observed empirical gaps, and develop context-sensitive design interventions that combined engineering, architectural, and social science perspectives.

2.1. Etxelagun and Kalelagun Research Projects

The methodology was developed in the context of the Etxelagun and Kalelagun research projects. These two research projects were financed by the Gipuzkoa Provincial Council.

The aim of Etxelagun was to analyze the behaviour of people over 55 years living alone who are at risk of loneliness. The analysis focuses on the study of their habits and how the configuration of the home, the elements present, and the environmental comfort affect their feelings of loneliness. For this purpose, the dwellings are monitored with sensors that measure thermal comfort, aspects related to light, presence and permanence in different premises, noise, the opening of doors and windows (including the access door to the home), etc.

A combination of calibrated sensors was used to record thermal and indoor environmental parameters for the purpose of environmental monitoring. Temperature and relative humidity were measured using HOBO MX1101 data loggers (accuracy: ±0.2 °C for temperature and ±2% for relative humidity). These loggers were positioned at approximately 1.1 m above floor level in living rooms and bedrooms to reflect the occupied zone. Illuminance was recorded using TSL2591 digital light sensors (accuracy ±3%), which were placed in close proximity to primary activity areas in order to capture daylight and artificial lighting patterns. The concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) was measured using Aranet4 Pro sensors (±50 ppm + 3%), which were installed in the primary living area to evaluate the efficacy of the ventilation system. Data were systematically recorded at five-minute intervals over the course of a continuous monitoring period.

There are three dwellings that form part of the project, and they are located in Bidania-Goiatz, Beasain, and Pasaia (Gipuzkoa), see Figure 1. Two of the dwellings are occupied by women and the third one by a man.

The result of the Etxelagun project is a design guide to be used for the rehabilitation of housing, and to give them a more oriented approach to older people living alone. It is important to take into account that the houses are designed to be inhabited by traditional family nuclei.

In the case of Kalelagun, the Project is focused on open public spaces. Empirical evidence demonstrates that well-designed public open spaces significantly enhance physical health, psychological well-being, and social engagement among older adults. These spaces facilitate physical activity and social interaction, which are critical factors in promoting healthy aging. Consequently, urban planning strategies must prioritize the identification and implementation of specific environmental characteristics that address the unique requirements of aging populations to support active, healthy lifestyles in urban settings.

Three open public spaces are monitored to measure key parameters that determine environmental comfort and accessibility. Those open spaces are located in Beasain, Donostia-San Sebastián, and Arrasate-Mondragón, see Figure 1. In addition to monitoring, surveys and non-participatory observations were conducted in the three areas. The surveys included questions on aspects related to habits, comfort, and proposals for improvement.

2.2. Interdisciplinary Integration

A key aspect of the methodology is the interdisciplinary collaboration between students from different academic backgrounds and the working groups of Etxelagun and Kalelagun.

The methodology is proposed through an Educational Innovation Project (EIP) approved by the UPV-EHU. The 6 lecturer-researchers are part of the EIP working group. The academic institutions of the UPV-EHU participating in the implementation of the methodology are the Faculty of Engineering of Gipuzkoa, Bilbao School of Engineering, and the School of Architecture. Each institution participates with two lecturer-researchers.

Among these 6 lecturer-researchers, three participate in both Etxelagun and Kalelagun initiatives, while four are involved in the Educational Innovation Group ikasTHERM (Active learning in Thermal Engineering). ikasTHERM comprises 13 faculty members specializing in Thermal Engineering, all holding lecturing positions across various engineering schools at the UPV-EHU. Notably, 2 of the 6 researchers participate across all three initiatives: EIP, Etxelagun and Kalelagun, and ikasTHERM. This improves the coordination of all actions, sharing the knowledge of all the working groups and increasing the potential of the methodology.

Regarding the Etxelagun and Kalelagun projects, to achieve the established objectives, a multidisciplinary working group has been formed, comprising architects, engineers, computer scientists, social workers, healthcare professionals, and technical staff from the participating municipal and provincial councils.

Figure 2 shows the scheme that defines how the RBL methodology is integrated in the context of the Etxelagun and Kalelagun research projects.

This integration enabled a holistic understanding of aging-related challenges, particularly how environmental factors—such as temperature, air quality, spatial accessibility, and social infrastructure—interact to shape the lived experience of elderly individuals.

The interdisciplinary process was facilitated through a combination of collaborative formats that encouraged dialogue and knowledge exchange among participants. The organization of joint design workshops functioned as a medium through which students were able to collaboratively formulate and evaluate solutions in real time. These were complemented by peer review sessions, which fostered critical reflection and iterative improvement of project proposals. Furthermore, the cross-tutoring approach employed by instructors from diverse disciplinary backgrounds, including architecture, engineering, and social sciences, furnished students with a range of perspectives and facilitated the integration of technical, spatial, and social considerations into their designs.

This collaborative environment fostered the co-production of knowledge, where students learned not only from the literature and fieldwork but also from each other’s disciplinary perspectives.

2.3. Specific Methodology for Final Degree Projects

All 6 theses followed a qualitative design structured around three main phases: (1) theoretical exploration and data collection, (2) field-based inquiry, and (3) design-based proposal development. The methodological steps were as follows:

• State-of-the-art review: Each student conducted a comprehensive review of the relevant literature, including scientific articles, technical reports, regulatory documents, and best-practice case studies. This provides a conceptual foundation for understanding the intersections between aging, loneliness, environmental comfort, accessibility, and urban inclusion.
• Case study selection and contextual analysis: The projects are geographically situated, selecting the location based on criteria such as population aging indicators, accessibility challenges, and diversity of housing and open public space typologies.
• Fieldwork and data collection:
  • Semi-structured interviews were carried out with elderly individuals to explore their experiences and perceptions of comfort, mobility, and social interaction within urban and residential settings. The interviews included open-ended questions to elicit in-depth narratives, with an emphasis on identifying environmental stressors and opportunities for improvement.
  • On-site observations and urban audits were conducted to systematically document environmental barriers, design inefficiencies, and spatial qualities. These included observations of public spaces, building access points, pedestrian infrastructure, and indoor environments (e.g., lighting, noise, thermal comfort).
  • Photographic documentation and spatial mapping were used to support qualitative observations and provide visual analysis of urban forms and environmental features.
• Data analysis
  • All qualitative data were transcribed and analyzed using thematic coding techniques. The analysis focused on identifying recurring issues related to accessibility, comfort, autonomy, and social connectivity.
  • The categorization process allowed the student teams to link empirical findings with theoretical frameworks, enhancing the validity of their design proposals.
  • A comparative analysis across the 6 theses was later conducted to extract common themes, best practices, and systemic barriers.
• Proposal
  • The students propose a project for the rehabilitation of the interior or exterior space under analysis.
  • This proposal is presented to the rest of the students participating in the initiative.

2.4. Assessment of Student Engagement

A core objective of the EIP is to train future professionals in the fields of active and healthy aging and in combating unwanted loneliness through architecture and urban planning. This is a topic with a significant social dimension, making commitment to people and engagement with the issue essential.

To assess the progress of participating students, a series of surveys was conducted—one before starting their FDP and another upon completion. The initial survey was also administered to students working on their FDP with participating professors, but whose research topics were unrelated to active aging.

The survey aims to carry out the following:

• Gauge prior knowledge of the subject;
• Evaluate students’ perception of the severity of the issue;
• Analyze their commitment to continue working on related topics after graduation.

The preliminary questionnaire consists of 10 statements, while the post-project survey includes 7 statements and one open-ended question. Responses to the statements are based on a Likert scale.

2.5. Outcomes and Synthesis

Each of the 6 FDPs yielded comprehensive proposals that directly addressed the findings derived from their respective case studies. The proposals encompassed urban design guidelines with the aim of creating age-friendly public spaces, modifications to housing design intended to improve thermal and environmental comfort, and strategies for fostering active aging through infrastructure planning. Furthermore, the students formulated policy recommendations grounded in the specific needs and preferences expressed by the elderly participants involved in the research process.

The synthesis of the 6 projects served as a meta-analysis, highlighting shared challenges (e.g., poor accessibility, lack of shading in public areas, thermal discomfort in housing) and convergent design principles (e.g., universal design, passive systems, inclusion-oriented planning).

The 6 FDPs each addressed specific dimensions of aging and the built environment, including topics such as environmental accessibility, indoor environmental quality, and urban interventions to promote active aging. A detailed account of the focus and outcomes of each project is presented in Section 3.

This collective analytical process informed a broader understanding of how educational research can contribute to actionable knowledge in the field of inclusive and sustainable urban design for aging societies.

3. Results

The analysis of the 6 FDP revealed diverse yet complementary perspectives on how urban planning, architectural design, and environmental quality influence the well-being of elderly populations. Each project addressed specific dimensions of aging in the built environment, offering targeted insights grounded in empirical research. This section summarizes the main findings of each project, highlighting both the challenges identified and the strategies proposed to foster inclusive, healthy, and age-friendly environments.

• FDP 1. Study of the relationship between the well-being of the elderly and environmental accessibility in public open spaces. Proposals for improvement.

A particular student project concentrated on the correlation between the accessibility of public spaces and the subjective well-being of elderly individuals. Through a combination of field observations and semi-structured interviews, the study identified critical barriers that hinder outdoor mobility and comfort for older adults. Physical obstacles such as uneven pavements, poorly maintained surfaces, limited seating availability, and inadequate lighting were consistently noted across various urban settings. These factors not only restricted safe mobility but also discouraged elderly individuals from engaging in outdoor activities, which are essential for physical health and social interaction.

Interview data revealed a pronounced preference among elderly participants for safer and more navigable environments. Many expressed feelings of exclusion or vulnerability in spaces that lacked continuous pedestrian paths or rest areas. Importantly, the study underscored that the absence of accessible infrastructure contributes not only to physical discomfort but also to reduced social participation and, in some cases, increased feelings of isolation.

In response to these findings, the project proposed a set of design interventions grounded in universal design principles. These included the creation of continuous, obstacle-free pedestrian routes, the strategic placement of ergonomically designed seating, improved public lighting, and enhanced signage for orientation and safety. Such measures are intended to promote age-friendly environments that facilitate regular outdoor engagement and foster a sense of autonomy and inclusion among older adults.

• FDP 2. Housing, indoor environment quality, and its impact on the well-being of the elderly.

A second project examined how indoor environmental conditions in housing—specifically thermal comfort, lighting, ventilation, and air quality—affect the daily lives and well-being of elderly residents. Recognizing that older adults typically spend a substantial amount of time indoors, the study combined environmental monitoring with resident interviews to evaluate comfort levels and associated health impacts.

The environmental monitoring data revealed that prolonged periods of indoor temperatures below 18 °C or above 27 °C, low daylight illuminance (<300 lux), and high relative humidity (>70%) often coincided with residents’ reports of reduced willingness to receive visitors or engage in outdoor activities. For instance, in one of the monitored dwellings, extended periods of cold indoor conditions during the winter months were associated with increased feelings of loneliness, underscoring the indirect role of thermal discomfort in social withdrawal.

The data revealed that inadequate ventilation and insufficient natural lighting were particularly problematic, frequently linked to respiratory discomfort and disrupted sleep patterns. Residents also reported general dissatisfaction with thermal conditions, especially during periods of extreme temperatures, which further impacted their physical and emotional well-being.

These findings highlighted the need for residential environments that support the specific physiological and psychological needs of aging populations. The project emphasized passive design strategies such as improved thermal insulation, optimized natural ventilation, and better daylight access. Such interventions aim to create healthier, more comfortable living spaces that support autonomy, reduce energy consumption, and enhance the overall quality of life for older adults.

• FDP 3. Proposal for the transformation of public open space. Case study in Pasaia.

A third project focused on the transformation of public open spaces in the municipality of Pasaia to enhance the social inclusion, mobility, and overall well-being of elderly residents. Through a combination of site-specific analysis, accessibility audits, and stakeholder consultations with both senior community members and urban planners, the study aimed to identify environmental barriers and develop context-sensitive urban interventions.

Findings revealed a notable lack of accessible recreational areas, limited public seating, and inadequate pedestrian infrastructure, factors that collectively discouraged outdoor engagement and reduced opportunities for social interaction among older adults. Many participants expressed a need for safer, more comfortable public spaces that encourage movement and facilitate spontaneous social encounters.

In response, the project proposed a comprehensive set of urban design interventions, including the redesign of public parks to incorporate age-friendly features, the widening of sidewalks, installation of ergonomic benches, improved pedestrian crossings, and the creation of interactive spaces that support intergenerational use. These proposals were grounded in principles of inclusive and sustainable urbanism, with the goal of fostering active aging and strengthening community ties in public environments.

• FDP 4. Analysis of accessibility and its impact on the well-being of the elderly in urban environments: a case study in Pasaia.

A fourth project, also based in the municipality of Pasaia, focused on evaluating how architectural and infrastructural barriers in urban environments affect the mobility and autonomy of elderly individuals. The study employed spatial mapping techniques to document physical obstacles and combined this with qualitative feedback gathered from older residents regarding their daily experiences navigating the city.

The analysis revealed a range of barriers that compromised safe and independent mobility, including steep slopes, uneven or narrow sidewalks, unsafe pedestrian crossings, and poorly located or inaccessible public transportation stops. These features not only limited the capacity for movement but also contributed to social withdrawal and reduced confidence in engaging with the public realm.

Despite the scale of these issues, the study found that many could be mitigated through relatively modest interventions. Recommendations included the installation of ramps, adjustments to curb and sidewalk heights, and the strategic enhancement of pedestrian connectivity and transport access. These targeted modifications were shown to significantly improve autonomy and quality of life, enabling healthier and more dignified aging within the urban context.

• FDP 5. Design strategies focused on active aging: Optimization of infrastructures to promote the well-being of the elderly.

A fifth project investigated urban and architectural design strategies aimed at promoting active and healthy aging through the optimization of public infrastructures. This research emphasized inclusive and sustainable approaches that foster physical activity and social engagement among elderly populations.

Field studies and user-centered analyses highlighted the essential role of accessible green spaces, community centers, and pedestrian-friendly neighborhoods in supporting both the physical and mental well-being of older adults. The study found that well-designed urban environments—with features such as safe walking paths, mixed-use zoning, and strategically distributed public amenities—significantly enhance health outcomes and facilitate social participation.

Based on these insights, the project proposed an integrated urban design framework focused on spatial equity and age-inclusive recreational areas. Key recommendations included the strategic placement of community facilities to maximize accessibility and encourage social interaction, as well as the creation of safe, walkable environments that support autonomy and foster a sense of community across generations.

• FDP 6. Well-being of older people and active aging: Analysis of internal and external environmental factors.

The sixth project examined the complex interplay between internal housing conditions and external urban environmental factors—such as climate, air quality, and shading—and their collective impact on the well-being and active aging of older adults. Utilizing field surveys, environmental monitoring, and interviews with urban designers, the study aimed to identify strategies for climate-responsive urban planning that better accommodate the needs of aging populations.

Findings highlighted the critical importance of microclimate regulation and environmental stress mitigation in public spaces. In particular, insufficient shading and poor air quality were identified as significant barriers to outdoor comfort and prolonged engagement in physical and social activities among elderly individuals.

The project recommended the expansion of shaded areas through enhanced urban vegetation, the incorporation of climate-adaptive design features, and the implementation of air quality improvement measures. These interventions were deemed essential to creating healthier, more comfortable outdoor environments that encourage active aging and improve overall quality of life for seniors.

Three key domains emerged across the six FDPs:

I.

Environmental Accessibility and Urban Inclusion

Several FDPs identified significant environmental barriers that hinder the daily mobility and social participation of older adults. In particular, studies conducted in Pasaia highlighted issues such as uneven pavements, inadequate pedestrian crossings, and a scarcity of rest areas or accessible recreational spaces. These factors negatively impact urban inclusion by discouraging older individuals from engaging in outdoor activities. To address this, students proposed applying universal design principles, enhancing signage, and redesigning public spaces to foster intergenerational interaction and reduce social isolation.

II.

Indoor Environmental Quality and Climate Factors

The projects that focused on housing conditions revealed that many older buildings suffer from poor ventilation, limited daylight access, and insufficient thermal insulation. These deficiencies were found to be exacerbated during extreme weather events, such as heatwaves or cold spells, impacting the physical and psychological well-being of older residents. As a response, passive design strategies were suggested, including improved natural lighting, better insulation materials, and adaptive window designs to mitigate environmental stressors and promote indoor comfort.

III.

Mobility, Autonomy, and Active Aging

The autonomy of older adults was frequently linked to both the physical environment and the infrastructure supporting active aging. Several participants described how limited mobility options, unsafe walking conditions, or a lack of accessible public transport reduced their independence. At the same time, the home environment was viewed ambivalently—as both a place of safety and a potential source of isolation. Proposals emphasized the need to improve walkability, provide accessible community infrastructure, and enhance opportunities for physical activity and social engagement. Digital connectivity and personalization of the living space were also seen as essential to maintaining identity and autonomy in later life.

A visual comparative analysis was conducted in order to synthesize the methodological diversity and thematic focus of the six FDPs. Figure 3 presents a radar chart that maps each FDP’s emphasis across six key categories: The following key areas must be given due consideration: environmental accessibility, indoor environmental quality, urban inclusion, mobility and autonomy, active aging infrastructure, and climate and environmental factors. This visualization provides a comprehensive overview of the scope and balance of the projects, thereby elucidating the unique and often complementary contributions of each to the overarching objective of enhancing the well-being of older adults through spatial and environmental interventions.

As demonstrated in Figure 3, FDP 1 and FDP 4 place significant emphasis on accessibility and mobility, while FDP 2 focuses on indoor environmental quality. The FDP 5 programme emphasizes the importance of active aging infrastructure, while the FDP 6 strategy integrates climate-responsive planning methodologies. The radar chart thus serves as a visual synthesis of the interdisciplinary and applied nature of the projects, underscoring the multiple dimensions considered.

Despite the thematic differences between the projects, there are fundamental findings that are shared. All 6 FDPs concur that both physical and social environments exert a pivotal influence on the autonomy, health, and sense of belonging of older adults. It was repeatedly asserted by participants that spaces that facilitate movement, foster social connection, and ensure environmental comfort are of significant importance. Furthermore, the cross-disciplinary collaboration between architecture and engineering students enriched the process, yielding comprehensive, context-aware solutions that merge technical soundness with human-centered design.

Considering that 70.9% of older adults living alone in Spain are women, and that women over 65 have on average 4.2% lower annual income than men, design proposals should integrate affordability and social programming strategies. These could include low-cost insulation upgrades, community kitchens, multipurpose communal rooms, and targeted activity programs in public spaces aimed at older women.

The findings collectively point to the need for age-inclusive urban and housing policies that address both the physical and social dimensions of aging. They also highlight the value of educational frameworks, such as RBL, that enable future professionals to engage directly with real-world societal challenges and co-develop solutions grounded in both empirical research and user experience.

3.1. Results of the Survey

As previously mentioned, the survey is divided into two sections: the first administered before beginning the thesis, and the second upon completion. All six students completed both sections. The survey template is provided in Appendix A.

3.1.1. Preliminary Survey:

The objective was to assess students’ baseline knowledge of the subject, which relates to the FDP topic selection process. Students either select from a list of faculty-proposed topics or may submit their own proposal for approval by their School’s committee. Consequently, students generally choose topics aligned with their interests, which may influence the results of the survey.

I.

Prior Knowledge

The average score for this section was 3.7, indicating relatively high knowledge for technical degree students. This likely reflects their motivation for selecting these socially oriented topics, which are atypical for engineering programs. Such choices suggest an unusual level of social awareness among these students.

The responses demonstrate their familiarity with relevant data, news reports, and somewhat specialized information on the subject.

II.

Problem Perception

In this section, the first statement addressed whether respondents consider loneliness among older adults to be a serious social problem, while the other two statements evaluated whether housing and public spaces are designed to meet the needs of the elderly.

According to responses, students unanimously agreed that senior loneliness constitutes a serious problem, and they recognized that current housing and public spaces fail to accommodate older adults’ needs.

III.

Empathy and Attitude

This section examined students’ personal and professional perspectives on loneliness. While none reported current feelings of loneliness, most expressed concern about their future quality of life in old age. They demonstrated the following:

• Significant interest in participating in projects to improve seniors’ quality of life.
• Strong belief in their potential to make positive contributions.

Figure 4 presents the average scores for each statement of the preliminary survey.

3.1.2. Final Survey

This section consists of three sets of statements and one open-ended question, allowing students to reflect on their project development experience. Figure 5 presents the mean response scores for each statement.

IV.

Acquired knowledge

With an average score of 4.2, students reported significantly improved understanding of older adults’ needs. This positive outcome aligns with one of the primary objectives of the proposed methodology. Participants also indicated they acquired new tools and approaches that will enable them to incorporate active aging principles in their future designs.

V.

Sensitivity Shift

Students assigned high scores to both statements in this section, demonstrating enhanced awareness of challenges in addressing senior loneliness, and a stronger commitment to tackling these issues.

VI.

Practical Application

The final question set evaluated students’ intention to continue working on active aging and unwanted loneliness topics.

The methodology’s implementation in technical schools presents unique challenges, as students typically show reluctance toward non-traditional topics. Furthermore, the social dimension requires acquiring both technical skills and an understanding of older adults’ social needs.

In this context, the results are particularly noteworthy:

• Question VI.1 achieved an exceptional 4.5 mean score.
• Participants showed strong willingness (mean = 4.0) to pursue active aging-related work.
• Students committed to implementing inclusive design measures addressing active aging and loneliness prevention

VII.

Analysis of Open-Ended Responses

The students’ responses to the open-ended question were analyzed and revealed a consistently high level of empathy and commitment to continue working on this subject. Participants particularly valued the social aspects incorporated in the developed methodology. The qualitative data demonstrated that students not only showed understanding of the issues but also expressed strong motivation to apply what they learned in their future professional practice regarding active aging and loneliness prevention. These findings align with and reinforce the quantitative results obtained from the Likert-scale questions.

4. Discussion

The findings of this study serve to reinforce the value of integrating interdisciplinary, socially engaged research into higher education, particularly in the context of aging societies. Student-led projects have demonstrated that when learners are immersed in real-world challenges, such as designing age-friendly environments, they can generate meaningful insights that align with and extend existing frameworks. These include the WHO’s “Age-Friendly Cities” initiative and UN-Habitat’s emphasis on health-integrated urban planning, underlining the potential of academic initiatives to directly inform policy and practice.

The collaborative nature of the research, which brought together perspectives from architecture, sociology, and environmental sciences, enabled a more holistic understanding of the needs of older adults. This finding is consistent with the conclusions of earlier studies that emphasized the significance of cross-sectoral approaches in addressing the multifaceted nature of aging [8,29]. It is noteworthy that the student project, which explored the relationship between the usability of public spaces and perceived well-being among older adults, corroborates earlier findings on the role of accessible environments in promoting autonomy and social participation [9].

Furthermore, the study addresses a critical gap in housing and urban policy: namely, the lack of attention to the psychosocial dimensions of aging, particularly loneliness and social isolation. The integration of students within participatory design processes and user-informed pilot studies has yielded two notable outcomes. Firstly, it has engendered the production of context-sensitive architectural solutions. Secondly, it has cultivated civic engagement and empathy among future professionals. This integrated approach represents a novel contribution by linking thermal comfort and spatial accessibility to psychosocial outcomes within an educational research framework.

Although this study primarily employed qualitative and small-scale environmental monitoring, the integration of predictive modeling techniques—such as artificial neural networks, fuzzy expert systems, and extreme learning machines—offers a promising direction for scaling up the methodology. Research has shown that these tools can be used to predict short-term changes in key environmental variables related to comfort, such as temperature, humidity, and pollutant concentrations (see [27,28,29]). The application of these models in conjunction with social data could enable early detection of at-risk situations and support proactive interventions to prevent loneliness and environmental discomfort among older adults. An analysis of survey data indicated elevated levels of student motivation and a readiness to persist in addressing issues pertaining to active aging and social inclusion. This finding suggests that research-based learning can be a powerful pedagogical tool for cultivating both technical competence and social responsibility.

It is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study. Firstly, the small sample size of six FDPs limits the statistical generalizability of the findings; results should therefore be interpreted as indicative rather than conclusive. Secondly, it should be noted that the student participants self-selected their topics, which may potentially introduce bias towards individuals with pre-existing interest in aging and loneliness who are socially motivated. Thirdly, the reliance on student-led research means that the quality of the data may vary depending on the methodological expertise of each student. Despite the study’s limitations, its qualitative and exploratory nature yielded valuable, context-specific insights that will inform future research with larger and more diverse samples.

In future research, there is a need to expand on environmental monitoring and technological innovation, with a focus on long-term impact and scalability. In summary, this project establishes the foundations for inclusive housing policies and urban environments that promote autonomy, social connectivity, and well-being for aging populations. In addition, efforts are being made to cultivate a new generation of socially engaged professionals. The study demonstrates how higher education can drive systemic change in tackling the interconnected challenges of aging, thermal comfort, and social isolation.