Challenges of Urban Water Security and Drivers of Water Scarcity in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal

Abstract

Water security and quality are among the six focal areas of the Eighth Phase of the International Hydrological Program. Several cities are struggling to meet water demand due to factors such as urbanization, pollution, and disasters. Consequently, water scarcity impacts various sectors, including human health and socio-economic development. Against this backdrop, we conducted research to examine the current state of water resources and the factors contributing to water scarcity in the Kathmandu Valley (KV), currently experiencing acute water shortages. The study employed three primary data collection methods, observation, interviews, and secondary data analysis, followed by qualitative analysis to achieve its research objectives. We analyzed the findings using the framework of the three pillars of Urban Water Security (UWS): water resource security, water environment security, and water disaster security. The dimensions of water quantity and quality interconnect with these pillars, which define the manifestations of water insecurity. The analysis showed that the KV significantly weakens all three of the UWS pillars. Through this research, the author developed a novel framework (PUMI): pollution, urbanization, management, and investment are root causes of water insecurity in the KV. These four factors identified and analyzed specific challenges such as inadequate building permit regulations, donor-driven investments, and poor management practices.

1. Introduction

Addressing water security and quality is one of the six themes of the Eighth Phase of the International Hydrological Programme focusing on water security: Responses to Local, Regional, and Global Challenges (2014–2021) [1]. The term ‘water security’ and its underlying concepts have captured the interest of governmental and non-governmental organizations, the private sector, and academia in policy and practice [2]. Water security is defined by UN-Water as the “capacity of a population to safeguard sustainable access to adequate quantities of acceptable quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development; for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters; and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability”. Similarly, as a consequence of urban growth, the number of city inhabitants lacking properly managed drinking water has almost doubled since 2000 [3]. In 2021, it was reported that over 2 billion people live in water-stressed countries, which is expected to be exacerbated in some regions. As a result of climate change and population growth, in 2022, globally, at least 1.7 billion people were reported to use drinking water sources contaminated with feces. Microbiologically contaminated drinking water can transmit diseases such as diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and polio [4]. In addition, in urban areas, the main challenges frequently encountered are a lack of access to basic services in informal settlements, high prices, and a lack of quality control of water from private vendors [5].

These types of water security challenges are evident in numerous cities globally, including Kathmandu, the capital city of Nepal. Although there are abundant water resources around Kathmandu Valley, it can be considered a water-scarce city because according to UNICEF, water-scarce cities are cities that lack quality water for sustaining livelihoods, human well-being, and socio-economic development; for ensuring protection against water-borne pollution and water-related disasters; and for preserving ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability. There are significant challenges in providing adequate water to inhabitants [6]. Despite Nepal possessing 2.7% of the world’s fresh water, Kathmandu, Nepal’s most developed region, struggles with a limited water supply due to rapid urbanization, overpopulation, and overexploitation of groundwater reserves [7]. However, a highly urbanized and densely populated city like Tokyo effectively manages its drinking water [8], providing evidence that urbanization alone may not be responsible for water scarcity in Kathmandu. Curiosity drove this study to investigate additional urbanization-related or peripheral factors contributing to this issue.

Therefore, this research first aims to explore the status of the water resources of the Kathmandu Valley. Similarly, secondly, it attempts to examine opinions from key informants on what led to Kathmandu’s water scarcity. Third, based on analysis, it provides policy recommendations to meet sustainable development goal 6, think tanks, and local and national level plans of the country as well as other countries that are facing similar problems. The research results have been analyzed through the framework of the three pillars of urban water security (hereafter UWS) as outlined by Su et al. [9]. Readers may wonder what the three pillars of UWS are. The three pillars of UWS are water resource security, water environment security, and water disaster security, and the pillars are interrelated through quantity and quality. Water resource security is mainly concerned with water shortage caused by unbalanced water quantity, whereas water environment security is concerned with water pollution and water pollution caused by unbalanced water quality. Simultaneously, water disaster security focuses on water-related destruction, such as floods, natural phenomena caused by a rapid rise in the water level of rivers and lakes, heavy rain, rapid melting of glaciers, and storm surges and their impact on water infrastructure during a disaster, adopted from [9].

2. Study Area Description

The Kathmandu Valley is the study region. It is the capital city of Nepal, with a total population of approximately 3.1 million. The entire Kathmandu Valley consists of three districts: Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, and Lalitpur. Kathmandu Valley has been facing water scarcity for a long time. Previous studies have highlighted urbanization, pollution, and management issues as key challenges to water security, which are further explained in the literature review section. Additionally, the gap between demand and supply exacerbates the issue, with the daily demand recorded at 485 million liters, as per the official website of Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL), while production averages only 129 million liters. This significant gap, along with the potential impact of urbanization, pollution, management, and other contributing factors, motivated me to conduct this research. Seasons play a crucial role in maintaining the water supply system in the Kathmandu Valley because the dry season is a very critical period for Kathmandu residents. Winter starts in December and lasts till February. Summer is from March to May, the monsoon starts in June and lasts till August, and autumn is from September to November. Kathmandu Valley primarily relies on piped water systems for drinking water sourced from nearby foothill resources (preurban area), including the Melamchi River (highlighted in Figure 1), which is located 65 km away from the city. The valley receives approximately 129 million liters of water per day from local sources [10], with an additional supply of 170 L per day from the Melamchi River [11]. However, this supply is disrupted during the monsoon season because the project remains closed due to concerns about flooding. This closure can be attributed to the 2021 flash flood in the Melamchi River, which destroyed the water project’s infrastructure. The project is still under reconstruction and lacks the capacity to manage the overflow of water during the monsoon [12]. Moreover, many areas rely on dug wells, but the water is not drinkable and is used only for household purposes other than drinking. For drinking water, people depend on water jars and tankers in many areas [13]. Therefore, dug wells are excluded in this research. In addition to these sources, stone spouts, known as hiti, also play a significant role in the region’s water system. According to the Kathmandu Water Supply Development Board (KWSSDB), a survey conducted in 2019 identified 573 stone spouts across the valley, of which 224 were still functional, while 94 had been completely lost. These remaining functional spouts have historically served as a vital water source for low-income households in the valley, providing access to drinking water in urban and rural areas [14,15,16]. Apart from these resources, there are other critical factors that pose major challenges to water security, which this research will examine.

3. Literature Reviews

To ensure the inclusion of the most recent and relevant studies that reflect current trends, emerging challenges, and advancements in the field of urban water security, we first searched research articles using the keywords ‘water AND scarcity OR security AND drivers AND urban’ and limited the search to the years 2010 to 2024. The search was limited to the subject areas of environmental science and social science and included only open-access articles on Science Direct; we yielded 1365 results. Second, we added ‘Kathmandu’ to the same keywords and expanded the year range from 2005 to 2024, yielding 51 additional articles. ‘Scarcity’ was also replaced with ‘security‘. Based on the abstracts and relevance, 28 articles were included from Science Direct, 3 from MDPI, and an additional 9 supporting reviews were taken from other sources from the literature review (Figure 2). The Introduction and Discussion Sections include other selected articles, reports, websites, and news sources.

First of all, this study focuses on trends in the literature that basically focus on reasons for growing water challenges, such as urbanization, population growth, and environmental issues, including disasters. Drinking water supply managers around the world are facing the challenges of water scarcity in the face of global change and changes in urbanization as well as with the climate, leading to water scarcity [17]. Another study supports the idea that population changes have a significant effect on water scarcity, along with the changes in water withdrawal from different sectors (agricultural, industrial, and household). These factors collectively influence total water withdrawal and its impact on water scarcity [18]. Further research also confirms that over time, the availability of fresh water has decreased, leading to significant water scarcity in certain areas. Climate change has altered the occurrence and quantity of precipitation, exacerbating water scarcity due to rapid population increase and urbanization. Furthermore, lack of management on utilization efficiency, water recycling ability, sewage management level, and infrastructure construction capacity are enhancing urban water scarcity [19]. Disaster incidents often damage water infrastructure through processes like pipe breaks, contamination of water sources, and power outages that prevent pumps from functioning, and they create water scarcity in cities. As examples of such disasters, the South Napa earthquake caused significant pipe ruptures, while the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal severely disrupted water supply systems in Kathmandu. Similarly, Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Harvey in the United States, along with the 2018 Kerala floods in India and Typhoon Haiyan in the Philippines, illustrate how natural disasters can lead to widespread damage to water distribution systems, resulting in shortages and contamination [20,21,22,23]. Disruptive situations of this nature can result in various forms of harm, such as pipe breaks, water contamination, and the inability to run pumps [24]. Urban areas are playing an increasingly important role in determining water security. They are dealing with the challenge of ensuring a sustainable supply of water while also addressing the barriers and choices involved in protecting both people and ecosystems from water-related stresses and hazards [25]. A study in Osaka city demonstrated that water infrastructure disruptions during disasters can significantly impact society and lead to varying levels of water scarcity [26]. Similarly, the drinking water systems consist of intricate and diverse infrastructure networks that vary based on various factors, including the water source, the quality of both the raw water and drinking water, and the population density, and the infrastructure of the systems is somehow vulnerable to the type of structure, their materials, integrated technologies, geographical location, and the way they execute their functions [27]. Moreover, several factors, such as inadequate resource management and limited financial resources, exacerbate water-related challenges in developing countries [28]. Similarly, unplanned groundwater use generates global attention and leads to groundwater depletion [29]. Furthermore, social factors significantly influence water scarcity, especially during times of disasters. The more devastating the disaster is, the fewer trained and knowledgeable personnel will be available in the aftermath. The recovery crews are reluctant to leave their families when they feel it is not safe to do so, which also leads to water scarcity in a city [30]. Thus, while the disaster initiates water scarcity, the absence of prompt recovery efforts prolongs and worsens the scarcity.

Secondly, diverse factors such as geographical location, urban–rural dynamics, human activities, and institutional challenges, as highlighted by studies across different regions, influence the complex issue of water scarcity. Studies conducted in China show that drivers of water scarcity vary as per location and diversity in the city. Different cities exhibit variations in the influencing factors of the three types of UWS. In cities experiencing quantity-induced water scarcity, factors such as regional water availability, water utilization efficiency, and water demand collectively impact UWS. Extensive human activity and limited water resources adversely affect the Yellow River, China’s second largest river. Similarly, in Nagpur, India, the Pench Project has experienced declining water levels due to upstream developments and climate variations. This reduction affects both urban and rural water users, intensifying competition for limited resources [31]. Additional examples from Pakistan highlight the situation as a ‘socio-institutional void’, where no effective action is taken to manage the resource, leading to gradual groundwater depletion in the Kuchlagh sub-basin of the Pishin Lora Basin over the past 30 years [29]. By analyzing historical water withdrawal data and conducting SWAT model simulations, researchers have discovered a notable increase in water shortages since the 1990s. Although there have been some recent enhancements in water accessibility, the basin still encounters severe water deficiencies [32].

A study from 2011 to 2016, which quantified and compared the production-based water footprint of 31 major cities in China with available water resources, revealed a lack of pollution and appropriate policies for water security [33]. Human factors (overexploitation, pollution, economics, agro-food aspects, the socio-economic side, and government intervention) deeply influence water availability. Apart from that, other factors such as institutional management/mismanagement, climate, water justice, and resource abundance also pose challenges to water security. For instance, Brazil holds the distinction of having the most abundant water resources globally, a situation that frequently impedes the implementation of optimal resource utilization.

The challenges stem from insufficient infrastructure and planning, particularly in the northern region, where the public water supply remains consistently inadequate, highlighting a management issue rather than the unsustainability of abundance itself [34].

The consequences of water scarcity manifest in the occurrence of intermittent water supplies. The current study identifies more than 47 elements that contribute to intermittent water supply and thoroughly investigates its origins and implications. It identifies 106 unique cause-and-effect routes and underscores the essential importance of human factors and demand-side actions in efficiently mitigating water intermittency [35].

Similarly, the existing literature shows that the lack of work on estimating and evaluating water balance in resource and climate projection is not helping to solve the water problem of the KV, especially in the context of urbanization, pollution, and disasters. Energy balance schemes, which account for critical factors like different runoff and evaporation rates, can be used for a more accurate representation of water balance in any basin and to obtain the ranges of the values of each water balance component. By incorporating multi-model techniques, these schemes can help better understand the impacts of urban growth, environmental degradation, and disaster events on water resources, providing insights for more effective water management and addressing water scarcity in the region [36].

The stone spout is/was helping Kathmandu Valley residents fulfill water demand. The stone spouts (hiti system) in the Kathmandu Valley have endured over time, providing water to local populations [37]. The stone spouts date back to the Lichivi period (400–750 AD), and they were further developed during the Malla period (1200–1768 AD). The ancient civilizations of the Kathmandu Valley, particularly during the Lichivi and Malla dynasties, constructed the spouts, reflecting their deep understanding of the terrain and water management [15]. The stone spouts work by channeling groundwater or water from nearby streams into public fountains or taps, serving both drinking water and irrigation needs. Traditionally, the local communities were responsible for maintaining the spouts, ensuring their functionality through regular cleaning and repairs. Due to urbanization and changes in water management practices, the maintenance of these spouts has become less consistent, leading to challenges with water availability and quality [38]. Nevertheless, the decline of the infrastructure began as the piped water supply expanded in the 1950s. The growing, uncontrolled development of urban areas in the 1990s and 2000s left them behind and caused significant deterioration over time. Despite the obstacles, spouts persistently aided local people with poor income and limited access to piped water. The water from the spouts is currently drying up, and even when it is working, the amount of water being released has significantly decreased [38]. Further articles confirm the same picture: the stone spouts, which are significant cultural treasures and serve as water distribution systems in the Kathmandu Valley, have suffered from neglect and have been adversely affected by human-led development projects. Over time, numerous stone spouts have ceased to function, with some facing complete disuse and deterioration [39].

Quality is also one of the major concerns of urban water security, and existing research shows that KV water quality does not meet satisfactory levels of the KV. This kind of case is often observed in other areas with low water availability and in economically poor countries where water is supplied intermittently (IWS). A study presented the contamination status, especially NO3-N contamination, in the municipally distributed tap water and the cause of contaminations in an area facing IWS in the Kathmandu Valley [40]. Moreover, another study equally supports that the KV’s water management practices to maintain quality are not enough because study results have shown the presence of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in drinking water sources and the limitations of the water treatment method utilized in the complete removal of ARGs [41]. In addition, land use and land cover are becoming another important factor for water quality. Previous studies revealed substantial changes in land use and land cover (LULC) patterns in recent decades, characterized by the expansion of urban areas at the cost of agricultural regions. Given the scarcity of flat agricultural sites, we anticipate the clearing of woods on hill slopes for residential use. This study predicts that developed areas will occupy around 50% of KVW by 2040, in line with the findings of other similar studies. The unregulated alteration of land use and land cover (LULC), without adequate spatial planning, imposes substantial strain on socio-environmental factors, such as water security, flood hazards, and landslides [42]. For instance, increased flood hazards caused by poorly managed urbanization often result in contamination of water sources, compromising water quality. Landslides exacerbated by deforestation further contribute to the sedimentation and pollution of natural water systems, amplifying the challenges of maintaining water security in the region. The valley is facing a scarcity of drinkable water due to rapid and mostly uncontrolled urban and population growth, inadequate sustainable water sources, significant changes in land use, socio-economic changes, and an ineffective management system. These impacts are particularly severe for the impoverished and vulnerable population residing in the valley. Furthermore, the fluctuation in the availability and price of uncontaminated water, along with conflicts between different sectors over water usage, pose a significant risk to water security in the valley [43]

The literature based on the Kathmandu Valley provides enough evidence that Kathmandu is facing water scarcity due to seasonal variations in resources. However, how many resources have been used and are the current conditions of the resources not yet openly available, creating obstacles for researchers to understand the nature of the sources of Kathmandu?

Therefore, this gap will be fulfilled through this research by searching, verifying, and understanding the current resources of the Kathmandu Valley, and its quality and quantity will be analyzed. A second gap has been observed in the causes of water scarcity. While the existing literature highlights urbanization, pollution, management, and land issues, it does not sufficiently address which specific aspects create barriers to achieving water security in the Kathmandu Valley. Therefore, this gap will be filled by identifying and analyzing critical issues, as well as conducting interviews with key informants.

4. Methods

The study employed a qualitative approach to investigate urban water security challenges and the drivers of water scarcity in the Kathmandu Valley by gaining a deep understanding of the causes of water scarcity. We selected 18 informants for interviews based on their professional experience, involvement in academic and institutional settings, and their knowledge of the Kathmandu Water System. A total of 18 respondents were interviewed to identify challenges contributing to water scarcity. Each respondent’s feedback was categorized under four main themes: urbanization, pollution, management, and investment. Sub-factors within these themes were identified through follow-up questions. Data collection was stopped after 18 respondents because data saturation was reached, meaning the 19th and 20th respondents provided responses identical to those already captured. No new themes or sub-factors emerged, making additional data collection unnecessary. We conducted the interviews in person in the local language (Nepali) from 2 April to 22 May 2024. Then, we transcribed all the responses from key informants in Microsoft Word after the interviews, highlighting repeated words. We listed and categorized all the drivers of water scarcity in Kathmandu into four broad categories based on the frequency of repeated words. We later analyzed these findings by calculating frequency in 100 percent alongside other findings from secondary sources and field observations within an urban water security framework. Additionally, observations during field visits helped clarify the nature of resources and validate informant responses. Before concluding, we validated the responses against published reports and national newspapers. We presented photos taken during the field observations with the results.

5. Result

5.1. Water Systems of Kathmandu Valley

The residents of the KV depend on tap water, groundwater supplies like wells, and stone spouts, as well as tanker, bottled, and jar water for their drinking and household requirements [44]. Kathmandu Khanepani Upatyaka Limited (KUKL) is responsible for the operation and administration of water and wastewater services in the valley. The company manages the provision of water supply and wastewater services through a license and lease agreement with the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board (KVWSMB). KUKL is accountable for the upkeep of all assets acquired on lease from KVWSMB. KUKL is also responsible for drinking water distribution from the Melamchi Water Supply Project [45].

The results from the field study revealed that currently, 20 foothill resources plus the Melamchi River are in use, operating through nine branches under Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) to supply piped water in the KV (field observation and sources were verified by the KUKL office). Melamchi is a massive project of national pride that aims to eliminate Kathmandu’s water scarcity. It began construction in 1998; however, due to political reasons and the 2015 earthquake, construction has been delayed [11]. Once again, the COVID-19 lockdown caused a delay in the progress of the water project. Despite its incomplete status, the project initiated the provision of water through a temporary diversion in March 2021. Nevertheless, a flash flood in the Melamchi River in June 2021 devastated the project’s headworks, causing lasting consequences. Currently, half of the construction is buried (Image-1) (Field visit 2023). According to a post-disaster report, the existing headworks are now located in an unsafe area due to the presence of a substantial dam formed by multiple landslides upstream, and this dam is at risk of bursting at any moment [46]. Currently, as of 2024, the supply of Melamchi water is operating through a temporary diversion during the dry season because it lacks disaster-resilient infrastructure for supplying water to Kathmandu during the monsoon season and to protect it from potential monsoon floods. As a result, the supply remains closed throughout the wet season, or monsoon (Interview, 2023). Since ADB, a loan provider to the Melamchi mega water project, has proposed a new location to relocate project headworks, several issues are going on regarding planning to use two rivers, Yangri and Larke, in the future, and it has not started yet. The residents of the Melamchi area have expressed several demands concerning the impact of disasters on their community. They are currently protesting the allocation of land for the relocation of the drinking water project headworks and the lack of government concern to enhance community resilience (Field Visit 2023). During a field visit, the author observed the local community voicing their demands to the Ministry of Drinking Water in Nepal. The term ‘community resilience’ here refers to the capacity to manage past disasters and prepare for future ones.

5.2. Analysis of Water Resources, Quantity, and Quality

5.2.1. Water Resources

All resources are located in the foothills, and due to urbanization, the settlement is expanding toward the upper side. Field observation of water sources and interviews with locals revealed a lack of physical protection, such as fencing or designated buffer zones, to prevent contamination and encroachment. In addition, residents near sources are not getting any benefit from the protection of water sources, such as priority access or compensation, from efforts to protect these water sources. Additionally, it was found that due to the expansion of settlements, locals have started to use the water for domestic purposes, and the impact of this has been observed in the water supply downwards of the valley (Interview 2024), such as the implementation of barriers. In addition, some stone spouts in the nearby foothills continuously flow without any conservation (Field Observation 2024) in the foothill area. This unregulated flow highlights a critical issue: while these spouts provide a localized and continuous water source, the lack of preservation or equitable redistribution contributes to Kathmandu’s overall water scarcity. By not safeguarding and managing these resources effectively, their potential to alleviate water shortages in other areas remains untapped, further exacerbating the city’s water crisis.

With the exception of the Melamchi River, which is 65 km from the valley, Figure 3 shows the current water sources near the foothill areas that provide piped water to residents of the Kathmandu Valley. No publicly available websites list these sources. Therefore, this author created the map after verifying the information with the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) office in Kathmandu. The map illustrates Kathmandu’s reliance on peri-urban and rural areas for its drinking water supply. However, locals reported observing a decline in water levels, although they were unsure about the reasons behind this decline [47].

In the context of groundwater, climate change poses a threat to the groundwater resources in the valley. The impact of climate change on groundwater recharge and groundwater level has been analyzed in the existing literature, and it has been shown that future groundwater recharge is projected to decrease. However, the decrease in groundwater level is uneven across the valley [48]. In addition, stone spout water sources are drying up, and the flow has diminished considerably [47].

5.2.2. Quantity of Water

Regarding the quantity of water, desk research indicated that the KV is facing acute water scarcity. An analysis of five years of the KUKL annual report, shown in Figure 4, shows that there is a notable gap between demand, average production, and supply. This evidence indicated that KV people are facing water scarcity due to a lack of water due to less production. Based on respondents’ insights and the author’s analysis, one main reason for water scarcity is seasonal variation. During the wet season, the Melamchi project closes, and surrounding water sources become insufficient. Additionally, during the rainy season, water often becomes turbid and contaminated with soil and sediment, rendering it unclean and unsuitable for drinking.

A respondent from KUKL explained, we have been collecting a very basic tariff from the people who use water. On the other hand, residents living near the sources are not receiving significant benefits. Consequently, issues such as inadequate protection of sources against pollution, encroachment, climate change, seasonal variation, and inadequate management challenges contribute to problems with water quantity.

Another respondent informed us that in many stone spouts, water flows continuously; however, while some locations have storage systems, these are not widely implemented. The respondent suggested that with effective water conservation practices, the available water could significantly enhance overall water availability. Furthermore, the respondent noted that the failure of the Melamchi project is a critical factor contributing to the current water scarcity in the valley, arguing that, had the project been successful, residents would not be experiencing such acute shortages.

Both respondents emphasize the role of management challenges in exacerbating water scarcity. While one focuses on resource protection and equitable distribution, the other highlights inefficient storage and conservation as significant gaps. Seasonal and project-specific factors (e.g., the Melamchi project’s failure) are highlighted as pivotal in shaping water availability. Both stress the need for better resource management strategies, whether through protection, equitable benefit-sharing, or improved conservation practices.

5.2.3. Quality of Water

In terms of quality, the available water in the KV is not directly drinkable. An existing study examined the contamination status and identified the causes of contamination in areas facing intermittent water supply (IWS). This was performed through sample testing in various areas of Kathmandu. Even when NO3-N concentrations were within established drinking water quality standards, a comparative analysis of the tap water, reservoirs, and surrounding groundwater indicated that up to 10% of NO3-N in tap water samples differed from that in reservoirs during the wet season. This discrepancy increased to 16% during the dry season [40]. In order to clarify this in the field context, questions were asked of informants regarding the quality of water because in the case of Kathmandu, water contamination poses a significant challenge to water security, even when water is physically available. For example, groundwater often contains high levels of iron, making it unsuitable for drinking without treatment. Similarly, tap water is not directly drinkable due to inadequate management and treatment processes, further exacerbating the city’s water security challenges.

One respondent stated that, “Comparatively tap water is better than groundwater in the valley but we can’t drink directly, whether we filter or boil before”.

Another respondent added, “We are not sure tap water is safe to drink; therefore, I don’t want to take risks; therefore, we always boil it and cool it, and then only we drink it”.

The above-mentioned existing literature, field observation, and interview results show that the KV water system is in a very critical condition in all three levels of resource quantity and quality. The scenario of Melamchi from the field observation presents the picture that the Melamchi project requires more time before it can run in the full phase, and another plan to include the Yangri and Larke rivers in the Melamchi project has yet to start. As per the annual report of KUKL, there is a huge gap between demand and production. Regarding current sources near the KV, the groundwater level is decreasing, and several factors are responsible for this: first, the change in environment; second, encroachment; third, the lack of protection policies; and fourth, poor collaboration between stakeholders (local people, urban–rural government, and urban people).

5.3. Interview Results on Drivers of Water Scarcity

The responses were received from a discussion around two key questions: what are the main reasons for Kathmandu’s water scarcity? And why has the problem not been solved for decades. They were categorized under four broad themes: pollution, urbanization, management, and investment (PUMI). The author established the term PUMI after analyzing all the information during the study (Figure 5). Based on the frequency of words and respondents’ prioritization of problems, the figure below illustrates insights from the interviews.

5.3.1. Pollution

Kathmandu is facing severe water scarcity, which is increasingly exacerbated by rising pollution, as shown by the four blue lines in Figure 5. Although the ‘Interest Group’ has the highest percentage among all challenges, pollution ranks the highest among the four major categories (PUMI). One of the primary challenges is the contamination of the Bagmati River, which has historically been a key source of water for the valley. As pollution levels rise, the river’s water quality deteriorates, reducing its availability for food production and making it unsuitable for meeting the growing demand for clean water. The pollution not only affects the water quality but also places additional strain on already limited water resources, compounding the challenges of managing water security in the region. The research results show that pollution has a positive correlation with water scarcity, where growing pollution leads to growing water scarcity.

One respondent stated that “decades ago, the Bagmati River water was used for multiple purposes such as washing clothes and performing ritual tasks (like bathing on special days). However, due to the polluted water, people no longer use the river for bathing or washing clothes, which puts additional stress on other water resources”. The Bagmati River is an important source of water for Kathmandu.

In addition, water pollution in the Kathmandu Valley is driven by three factors: unmanaged garbage (45%), a lack of public awareness (37%), and the absence of effective incentives and penalties (18%).

Unmanaged Garbage: Field observations, desk research, and interviews collectively reveal that the Bagmati river, traveling across or through the Kathmandu Valley, is profoundly polluted due to escalating and unregulated urbanization, as well as the indiscriminate discharge of domestic and industrial waste. Additionally, from its source throughout the city, the riverbanks are severely contaminated, and it is challenging to walk along the riverside due to the pervasive putrid odor. According to the informant’s interview, climate change is causing the source to dry up, resulting in a diminishing water flow. Furthermore, unmanaged pollution is adversely affecting both the quality and quantity of the water, resulting in scarcity in the valley. Protecting and maintaining the river and its source is imperative for enhancing water security. Simultaneously, informants stated that, “It is well understood that a river cannot be clean unless its sources and tributaries are clean. The river will not be purified if hundreds of sewers continue to discharge waste upstream while pretending to clean the river downstream by picking up a few pieces of plastic for the cameras”.

Lack of public awareness: In the Kathmandu Valley, the Bagmati River is biologically dead and full of heavily polluted sewage water that endangers the health of the capital’s population and downstream water users [49]. People are still not aware of the need to protect the river. Interviews with residents show similar results. In one interview, a local resident responded, “For the past ten days, the garbage truck hasn’t come to collect the trash, so we are compelled to throw garbage near the riverbank”. Key informant interviews also echoed this sentiment, highlighting that the problem extends beyond garbage management, as people often lack awareness of it. Our education system and culture exacerbate this issue by not instructing our children to avoid disposing of plastic packaging on the road.

Incentives and penalty: Several times, the Nepalese government has initiated volunteer-based programs. The Bagmati River Cleanup Campaign began as a joint effort between government and non-government groups, focusing on the Bagmati River, and 400,000 individuals dedicated to river cleanup have supported the campaign. However, an interview with a key informant further clarified the situation:

“Until we stop dumping and direct sewage discharge into the river, the number of participants doesn’t matter”. Despite the youth’s heightened sensitivity to the issue, their fatigue is growing due to the lack of proactive measures. Relying exclusively on continuous volunteer efforts from youths is not a sustainable solution. We can make the Bagmati clean if we provide initiatives to those involved in cleaning and protecting the river and impose strict penalties on all government departments involved in river pollution. It shows that even though several projects, such as the Bagmati River Basin Improvement Project and various cleaning campaigns, are underway, the lack of punishments and rewards does not encourage people to either save the river or refrain from polluting it.

Apart from the Bagmati River, no such policy and guidelines have been found that particularly encourage people to protect sources or indicate any type of penalty except hanging notices around sources and reservoir boards (it is not permitted to wash clothes, take showers, or swim within this water resource area, author translation).

5.3.2. Urbanization

Similarly, four factors play a tremendous role in the urbanization of the Kathmandu Valley in terms of meeting water demand: the construction of houses in regions without water access (46.15%), building permits (35.9%), a paradigm shift (5.13%), and behavioral change (12.82%).

Building permits: People are aware of the water scarcity in the area, yet they continue to construct houses, believing that they can buy water through tankers if other facilities are available. The emphasis on building houses within the city area without considering basic requirements, which include water, has become a very critical challenge for the Kathmandu Valley. Regarding building permits, one respondent further added, “Municipal offices that approve building plans without checking proper water infrastructure or water access, coordination issues between local bodies lacking elected representatives and ministries, are all contributing factors to disorganized urbanization”. Consequently, people are facing water scarcity in that area. This indicates that local authorities are prioritizing city development over providing necessities.

A paradigm shift: Discussions with the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Board (KVWSB) show that a paradigm shift in water supply demand has created a critical situation in the valley. The paradigm shift lies in the transition from a previously stable, localized water supply system to a new reality. Several decades ago, nearby foothill resources sustained the wet season, which is the period between the start of the monsoon and the rise in river water levels. However, rapid population growth over the past few decades has changed this dynamic. The Melamchi River project, which was initiated to address water needs, rarely meets the demand during the dry season. Moreover, the lack of disaster-resilient infrastructure leads to a complete halt in supply during the wet season to prevent potential flood damage. This has created a significant gap between water demand and supply, which was not present around the year 2000. The paradigm shift resulting from population growth, monsoon timing, and changing rainfall patterns is posing challenges in balancing supply and demand.

Behavioral changes: Additionally, behavioral changes associated with urbanization, such as the growing popularity of swimming pools, the establishment of water fountains and water parks, frequent car and motorbike washing, and extensive gardening, have significantly increased water demand in recent years. Urban areas’ increasing population and economic activities drive the proliferation of swimming pools and car-washing businesses, reflecting changing lifestyle preferences and business opportunities. While exact quantifications of water usage across these activities in the Kathmandu Valley are unavailable, these trends underscore the need for careful resource management to meet the escalating demand.

5.3.3. Management

Key informant interviews revealed three key factors: significant deficiencies in sustainable planning measures at both national and local levels, ineffective stakeholder coordination, and the influence of interest groups. These issues fall under the broader category of management, particularly institutional management. For example, while planning the Melamchi River project, disaster was not considered as a result of the 2021 flood damaging the project, and now the ADB assessment has suggested relocating the project headworks [46]. Similarly, the stone spouts of Kathmandu are neglected, and despite several protection guidelines, field observation shows that they lack protection, such as structures going over the stone spout sources, and cleaning is not a priority. Instead of encouraging action, planning and guidelines remain confined to paper only. Coordination is lacking between several stakeholders, and responsibilities overlap with various organizations, such as KUKL and the Ministry of Water Supply Melamchi Water Supply Development Board. Key informant interviews have highlighted issues with coordination among multiple stakeholders. They noted that some stakeholders approach the situation from a business perspective, sometimes creating artificial scarcity to promote their products. For instance, the decline in river water levels leads to increased sales of additional water sources, such as tanker water, jar water, bottled water, and water storage tanks. This business model disproportionately affects those who cannot afford to buy extra water, creating challenges in meeting their water needs. Financial sector involvement is evident in the intertwining of water-related businesses with banking and loan systems. Further informants added, “To address these issues, it is recommended that the government establish a unified platform for water distribution, ensuring equal access for all through a single supply chain”. In addition, Nepal’s overall development is intertwined with the interests of multiple political parties, and in the KV, different parties and various sources of interest are creating challenges in terms of water security instead of reaching a solution.

5.3.4. Investment

Field observation, the existing literature, and key informant interviews reveal that water scarcity issues have persisted for decades, with no signs of a quick solution. The primary challenge lies in making the right investment at the right time. Four major factors hinder effective investment in addressing water scarcity: delay and timing, inflation, donors, and pipe leakage. Addressing these factors is essential for mitigating the long-standing water issues in the region. In discussion with informants, it was said that the “decision-making process is very slow for almost all government organizations, and while doing every project we allocate the budget, and it takes time to pass the budget from the concerned authority; once it has been done, it is already late, as every scenario has been changed from local vendor price to land rent, in short, almost everything, and at the same time we can’t predict inflation, how quickly it is rising, and we have failed to calculate the rising price, which again needs another budget pass; again the whole process repeats, and it is indeed very slow”. Similarly, it has been stated in a government report and with nine branch offices of the KV that pipe leakage is a very critical issue because of the old structures, which are more than 100 years old. Information received from key informant interviews indicates that timely inspections, delayed responses, and coordination issues with the road department due to the need to dig up roads for maintenance are major problems associated with pipe leakage, in addition to the aging infrastructure. Although these issues initially seem to stem from management, their root cause is often a lack of funding. For instance, the road department frequently denies requests for digging due to the labor costs involved in repeating work, highlighting the financial constraints that hinder effective coordination and timely maintenance. Although construction of the new Bulk Distribution System (BDS) has started, it is not yet complete. Donors drive every project, which is another important factor. We still need additional funding to complete both the Melamchi mega project and the BDS project. The total budget for the BDS, including the ADB portion, is USD 135 million [50].

After analyzing the information provided by informants, a deeper understanding of water quality, resources, and quantity was achieved. This analysis led to the author’s development of the PUMI concept (pollution, urbanization, management, and investment). These four factors encompass multiple elements, as described in the preceding paragraphs. The results highlight the urgent need to address PUMI, which represent the current challenges to drinking water security. Additionally, the following paragraph outlines three additional conditions affecting water in Kathmandu.

5.4. Water Resource Security, Water Environment Security, and Water Disaster Security

The research results indicate that the urban water security in the Kathmandu Valley is deficient across all three securities—water resource security, water environment security, and water disaster security. Our findings reveal that water resource security is challenged by three primary factors: the expansion of settlements into foothill areas, inadequate protection measures, and a lack of coordination among stakeholders. To address these issues, the implementation of urban–rural coordination guidelines [51] focusing on water systems is essential. The implementation of these guidelines will contribute significantly to the protection of water resources. Coordination between the Ministry of Urban Development, the Department of Water, and local bodies is crucial for achieving the goal of developing well-managed, clean, and esthetically pleasing cities and settlements. This collaborative effort will ensure the provision of infrastructure and services, including safe and affordable housing, as outlined on the Ministry of Urban Development’s webpage.

Similarly, the pollution near riverbanks is one example only, but stone spouts and water sources are also polluted, and on top of that, climate change’s impact on water resources has created further challenges. Despite water departments being aware of this issue, mitigative actions are very limited, which shows weak environmental security in the water system of the Kathmandu Valley. Investment in plans and public awareness programs help to address these issues, similar to the Thames River. In 1957, the Thames River in the United Kingdom was declared a “dead river”, incapable of sustaining any form of life. The sediment at the riverbed was said to smell like rotten eggs. However, life has now returned to the river due to extensive efforts, including significant investments in sewage treatment infrastructure, stricter environmental regulations, pollution control measures, and public awareness campaigns. These actions collectively transformed the Thames into a thriving ecosystem [52].

Globally, Nepal ranks 4th and 11th in terms of its relative exposure to climate change and earthquakes, respectively [53]. Out of 21 cities around the world that lie in similar seismic hazard zones, Kathmandu city faces the biggest threat in terms of consequences on people and infrastructure [23,46,54]. Past disaster evidence shows that the Kathmandu Valley water system does not have enough resilient water infrastructure to cope with future disasters.

6. Discussion

This study presents three major findings for discussion. First, water resources are not secured. The results show that due to a lack of protection, encroachment, and a lack of cohesive policy between local bodies (also highlighted in Section 5.4), water sources are becoming polluted and drying up. Additionally, we have filled the gap in the existing literature by identifying and verifying several foothill resources around the valley with the KUKL office, as depicted in the figure. The research verified the current nature of the resources in the Kathmandu Valley, and the foothill resources are very important. If we could establish guidelines, stop encroachment, create more recharge dams, and create awareness, it will contribute to the sustainable management of water.

Secondly, a lack of investment in disaster-resilient water infrastructure is a critical issue. As discussed in Section 5.1, second paragraph, the 2015 earthquake and 2021 flood further enhanced water scarcity in the Kathmandu Valley. As per the ADB report, due to extensive damage and possible LDOFs (landslide dam outburst floods), the Melamchi project needs to be relocated, which will result in more construction time. Several landslides have exacerbated the LDOFs, creating a large dam that could potentially burst at any moment [46]. These results are consistent with existing studies that have shown that the EU recovery program implemented in the country assisted recovery efforts following the early 2015 floods by reconstructing damaged water infrastructure. These studies highlighted how disasters disrupt water systems by damaging infrastructure and emphasized the need to build back better [55] However, an interesting aspect of our paper is its focus on a unique context: the project was created within a disaster-prone zone, and the proposed location to relocate it is considered unsafe by residents. However, the limitations of this research lie in its incomplete coverage of the Melamchi project, which suffered extensive damage from the 2021 flood, thereby exacerbating Kathmandu’s water scarcity issues.

Third, there is insufficient recognition of local water security challenges: The existing research pointed out that eagle views such as pollution, urbanization, investment, and management are major problems of Kathmandu’s water scarcity. This research explored, from a microanalysis perspective, factors including urbanization, providing building permits without calculating water facilities, people’s willingness to build a house without water access due to lack of awareness, shifting demand from winter to summer, and a lack of management, which differ from previous studies that indeed cover Kathmandu water scarcity. Previous studies [42,43] focus on substantial changes in land use and land cover (LULC) patterns, the fluctuation in the availability and price of uncontaminated water in recent decades, and on smaller problems instead of multifaceted problems.

Moreover, this research provided the idea that water scarcity, which is not always associated with technical or engineering issues, is more as a result of the Nepalese government’s Melamchi project. In addition, upstream and downstream coordination plays a crucial role in maintaining the water system by protecting water resources, which is described as hydro solidarity in previous studies [56,57]. Therefore, from this research, it is recommended to create hydro solidarity, particularly to focus on water resources based on benefit-sharing for residents of both areas. In terms of the behavioral aspect, this has also been studied in existing research focusing on investment behaviors [58]; however, this study explored uses of water such as for car washing, swimming, and for a water park, which are very important to consider in the water system.

Similarly, research shows that pollution is one of the problems linked to water scarcity. It further confirms a previous study that also shows that strong seasonal variability, up to intermittency, is a natural condition of water bodies in southern Europe. Furthermore, the expanding perspective of water scarcity suggests that these hydrological conditions may impact more regions in the future. This condition strongly affects the quality of water and the potential effects of pollution and additional stress factors [59]. Previous research has not found any violations of regulations regarding penalties or incentives for those who pollute rivers, which could potentially encourage people to engage in such activities.

Furthermore, a donor-driven approach involves the donor making decisions, leading to the construction of water projects based on donor interests rather than local needs. These results agree with a study conducted in Indonesia that stated that in recent years, developing countries under fiscal pressure have increasingly recognized significant weaknesses in their intergovernmental mechanisms for financing local infrastructure, so grant loan projects are helping with water infrastructure; however, they do not provide enough evidence to show that donor-driven project work is carried out for donor benefits instead of for the local people. In such a context, our results show some similarities and some slight differences from the previous result. Lastly, the management issue is the main problem in terms of Kathmandu’s water security, which is also common in other countries [60].

While the result holds significant implications for understanding KV’s water status, it also serves as a platform for local thinking in other cities currently grappling with water issues, albeit with some limitations. This study recognizes the connection between water scarcity and the engineering and technical aspects, an area not addressed in this research. However, it reveals that in order to address water issues, collaboration among social, engineering, and technical disciplines is crucial for research. Initially, we planned a visit to some water resources, but due to graveled roads and limited public transport, we were unable to physically visit. However, we did manage to visit three reservoirs during the dry seasons. This research was limited to qualitative analysis and the selection of informants was limited to only those who engage with water systems. Therefore, further research should explore the engineering part of the infrastructure and solicit public opinions to obtain more in-depth insight into water security.

Understanding the local context and challenges, the government should consider alternative approaches to achieve urban water security (UWS) and meet the sustainable development goals (SDGs). Additionally, the government should adjust water tariffs based on usage, such as gradually raising rates as water consumption rises, to effectively promote conservation and ensure affordability for essential use. One study was published discussing the application of IBTs and their role in discouraging water wastefulness [61]. If the government initiates green retrofitting programs, it will encourage households to adopt more sustainable practices. Implementing smart apps, which are becoming increasingly popular, can help control running taps and promote other water-saving methods.

7. Conclusions

Research on urban water security and scarcity in the Kathmandu Valley reveals that the city is facing significant challenges in managing its foothill water resources. These issues have a clear impact on both the quantity and quality of water available. Four primary factors—pollution, urbanization, investment issues, and management issues (PUMIs)—are critical in determining the water security of Kathmandu.

The results of an in-depth analysis of these factors emphasize the importance of understanding local and city-specific problems. However, some findings are also relevant to other cities, particularly regarding management and pollution issues. Therefore, the implications of this research extend beyond Kathmandu and can contribute to water security planning in other countries as well.

The findings of this research highlight the need for the protection of water sources at both local and national levels. Establishing robust and actionable coordination between multiple stakeholders is crucial, as this has been lacking so far. Additionally, this study suggests several innovative measures for enhancing water security in the Kathmandu Valley. These include incentivizing government housing to install green retrofitting, promoting urban–rural coordination for source protection, developing action-oriented policy areas, building disaster-resilient infrastructure, implementing capacity-building programs, and fostering innovations.