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Article

Rethinking Urban Greening: Implications of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design for Enhancing Perceived Safety in Baitashan Park, Lanzhou

by
Fei Hou
1,
Massoomeh Hedayati Marzbali
1,*,
Mohammad Javad Maghsoodi Tilaki
2 and
Aldrin Abdullah
1
1
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
2
School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang 11800, Malaysia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Urban Sci. 2025, 9(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9010009
Submission received: 26 November 2024 / Revised: 24 December 2024 / Accepted: 3 January 2025 / Published: 6 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Forestry as a Strategy for Promoting Greener and Healthier Cities)
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Abstract

:
While urban greening is an effective adaptation strategy for building resilient cities, socioeconomic factors and individual perceptions of urban parks play a significant role in enhancing their safety and inclusiveness. Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a widely recognized approach for enhancing safety in urban public spaces. However, existing research has largely overlooked the impact of socioeconomic factors and interpersonal needs on shaping perceptions of safety. Baitashan Park is Located in Lanzhou City, Gansu Province, China. It is an iconic urban park with significant cultural and recreational value. Despite the park’s popularity, it faces challenges such as uneven accessibility, maintenance discrepancies, and perceived safety concerns, especially among users from the lower socioeconomic status (SES) group. This study examines how SES and interpersonal needs affect the relationship between CPTED principles and perceived safety. Our findings reveal that interpersonal needs significantly mediate the impact of CPTED on perceived safety, with SES playing a moderating role in both the direct and indirect effects. Specifically, the influence of CPTED on perceived safety through interpersonal needs is more pronounced for individuals with higher SES, while the direct effect of CPTED on perceived safety is also stronger for users with higher SES. These results suggest that the effectiveness of CPTED principles can be enhanced by considering the interplay between socioeconomic status and interpersonal dynamics. This study underscores the importance of adopting a holistic approach to urban park design, integrating environmental, social, and economic factors to promote safety, inclusivity, and well-being for all park users.

1. Introduction

With the continuous improvement of urbanization in cities, building safe cities and crime prevention have become global concerns [1]. Urban parks, as public spaces, play an important role in enhancing urban livability and provide many benefits, such as relieving stress [2], maintaining social interaction [3], and improving life satisfaction [4]. Urban parks offer users opportunities for enjoyment and relaxation, while also improving their quality of life. However, poorly designed urban parks can lead to a range of problems. First, a lack of management and maintenance reduces the functionality of urban green spaces [5]. Second, the absence of safety features increases the potential for crime and antisocial behavior [6]. Finally, these issues weaken users’ perceived safety and dampen their motivation [7]. Therefore, perceived safety has become an important factor in the design and renovation of urban parks [8].
To address these safety issues, CPTED theory has become a practical framework widely used in urban safety design [9]. Enhancing natural surveillance, improving visibility, and maintaining proper maintenance and management through CPTED principles have been shown to be effective in reducing crime and increasing perceived safety [10]. As public spaces, urban park design should create an environment conducive to social interaction and cohesion to curb crime [11]. However, CPTED principles often prioritize physical and environmental factors while overlooking key social aspects of safety, particularly interpersonal needs, which are frequently neglected as basic human needs [12]. In particular, although Maslow’s hierarchy of needs provides a foundational framework for understanding human motivation, its strictly linear structure has long been criticized [13]. Current research suggests that these needs are not fulfilled in a strict sequential pattern; on the contrary, they interact dynamically and non-linearly [14]. This interdependence suggests that addressing interpersonal needs in urban parks can enhance perceived safety [15]. Therefore, CPTED principles should be more effectively integrated to address these needs [16].
In addition, there are significant differences in the perceptions, needs, and expectations of individuals of different socioeconomic status (SES) regarding environmental safety [17]. Research shows that people with high SES have more social resources and live in safer community environments than those with low SES [18]. Therefore, more in-depth research is still needed on the impact of specific CPTED principles on perceived safety among individuals with different socioeconomic backgrounds [19]. This study focuses on SES as a moderating variable to address this research gap and provide a tailored safety design solution for urban parks.
Based on the background outlined above, this study aims to explore the mechanisms through which CPTED principles influence perceived safety in urban parks. Using Process Macro to test the moderating mediation model, we address the following research questions: (1) Does CPTED positively impact the perceived safety of urban park users? (2) Do users’ interpersonal needs mediate the relationship between CPTED and perceived safety in urban parks? (3) Does SES moderate the relationship between CPTED and perceived safety in urban parks? Through this research, we seek to establish a scientific foundation for the design and management of urban parks, with the ultimate goal of enhancing residents’ quality of life and community well-being. We propose several strategies for improving the design and management of urban parks, aiming to create safer, more inclusive, and cohesive spaces. Our objective is to contribute to the development of urban parks that are inclusive, safe, and sustainable, supporting broader urban development goals.

2. Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

2.1. CPTED Theory and Perceived Safety

In recent years, CPTED theory has begun to focus on organizing community activities and designing green spaces [20]. In addition, CPTED also emphasizes inclusive design, considering diverse user needs and ensuring that environmental design not only effectively prevents crime but also promotes overall human well-being and sustainable development [21]. The continuous development and application of CPTED theory show that environmental design is crucial in urban planning, community safety, and crime prevention. Through continuous theoretical innovation and practical testing, CPTED provides an effective strategy to help cities and communities reduce crime and enhance the environment’s safety [22]. Natural surveillance focuses on increasing visibility into the environment. When designing urban parks, attention should be paid to broad vision, appropriate lighting, and elimination of blind spots so that people around them can naturally observe users’ behavior, decreasing crime risks and promoting environmental safety [23]. Territoriality divides public and private space, indicating the independence of space [24]. In addition, territoriality enhances users’ sense of identity and belonging to the environment [25]. It is recommended to make it easy to identify and deter potential criminals who do not belong in the space [26]. Access control is how visitors are directed or restricted into or out of urban parks through design and layout [27]. It can reasonably divide various areas of urban parks, thereby effectively limiting the entry of criminals [28]. Image and maintenance demonstrate that well-maintained urban parks convey a message of stewardship and care and reduce opportunities for crime [29]. Target hardening is used to improve the safety of the park by increasing measures such as CCTVs or lights to reduce crime or vandalism and improve the safety of the park, thereby changing the user’s perceived level of safety [30]. Activities held in urban parks can attract more users to visit the park, increase foot traffic, promote nature surveillance, make potential crimes easy to detect by users in good time, and enhance the safety of the park environment [31]. In contrast, dilapidated urban parks are considered neglected or poorly managed and maintained, which may promote crime and negative social behavior [32]. Therefore, regular cleaning, pruning, and renewal indicate that urban park areas are monitored and protected. The combined effect of the above six CPTED principles can reduce opportunities for crime and improve users’ sense of security. On this basis, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H1. 
CPTED positively impacts the perceived safety of urban park users.

2.2. The Mediating Role of Interpersonal Needs

CPTED principles aim to create an attractive and well-maintained urban park as a gathering place for social interaction, which helps to enhance users’ sense of belonging [33]. Second, CPTED principles make the design of urban parks safer and more secure, thereby reducing potential crime [34]. When users perceive their environment as safe enough, they are more likely to interact with other users and develop good social connections [35]. Therefore, CPTED can address safety concerns and promote cohesion by encouraging user participation in enhanced natural surveillance [36]. Natural surveillance can enhance users’ social connections and facilitate a stronger sense of belonging [33]. Finally, CPTED advocates design with the full range of user needs in mind [16] so as to create more inclusive and welcoming urban parks for all to use.
In public spaces, particularly urban parks, interpersonal needs—such as intimacy, social belonging, and social connection—significantly influence an individual’s perceived safety [37,38]. Although safety is traditionally prioritized over belonging in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, studies focused on urban parks have shown that both a sense of belonging and safety can be enhanced through social interactions. For example, research by Jansson et al. [39] shows that social interaction in parks can dramatically reduce an individual’s fear and enhance their trust and safety in the environment. Research shows that when individuals have a higher sense of belonging to an urban park, they are more likely to believe that the park is safe because they trust and are familiar with the people around them [35]. Users consider themselves more secure with people they trust or have strong social relationships with [15]. In addition, the stronger the social connections, the better the surveillance effect of the surrounding users, which can act as a deterrent to criminal activity [40], as potential criminals are less likely to engage in illegal acts when they realize that they may be monitored by park users [34]. Notably, the physical design of urban parks, including ample light, clear roads, and open lines of sight, can help enhance users’ sense of safety [41] and promote opportunities for social interaction [42]. When parks are designed with safety in mind, users are likelier to use them and build good relationships with others, further meeting their interpersonal needs [43]. In short, users’ interpersonal needs are interrelated with their perceived safety in urban parks. When people feel a sense of belonging, trust, and a good relationship with others in a park environment, they are more likely to perceive a city park as a safe, welcoming space. Based on the above points, the following hypothesis can be made:
H2. 
Interpersonal needs mediate the relationship between CPTED principles and perceived safety in urban parks.

2.3. Moderating Role of Socioeconomic Status (SES)

A prior study points to differences in the perceived safety of CPTED strategies for urban parks by users of different SES [44]. On the one hand, users from different socioeconomic backgrounds may have different opportunities to enter parks that employ CPTED principles. Urban parks built in economically better districts are likely to have good lighting, clear lines of sight, and well-maintained facilities [45] and may have more resources invested in policing to increase safety awareness [46]. The benefit of these CPTED elements is that users may feel a higher sense of security. On the other hand, people from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may live in areas with higher crime rates [47]. CPTED principles are essential for these people to alleviate their security concerns [48]. Effective CPTED principles to reduce crime can lead to a more positive perceived level of safety among users in these areas [44]. In simple terms, individuals’ differing perceptions of CPTED elements can influence their perceived safety. Second, how individuals seek to meet interpersonal needs may be affected by their SES, cultural background, and environment [49]. Based on the above points, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H3. 
SES moderates the “CPTED–Perceived Safety” relationship and the first half of the mediating process of “CPTED–Interpersonal Needs–Perceived Safety”.

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Conceptual Model

This study aims to analyze the underlying mechanism through which CPTED principles impact perceived safety in urban parks by exploring the relationships between CPTED principles, perceived safety, and interpersonal needs. Based on previous studies and hypotheses, the study model was developed following the procedure for analyzing mediating and moderating effects using Models 4 and 8 in Process Macro (Figure 1).

3.2. Study Area

Data for this study were collected from Baitashan Park, Chengguan District, Lanzhou City, China (Figure 2). According to data from the Lanzhou Municipal Bureau of Statistics in 2022, the overall green coverage rate of Lanzhou is 42.09%, and the per capita park green space area is 12.12 square meters. As the most populous area in Lanzhou, Chengguan District has a permanent population of 1,502,100, and its dense population distribution and the imbalance in park area make the social functions of the park more important. In addition, although Chengguan District leads the city in terms of economic development, its high population density and commercial activities make it a high-risk area for property crimes [10,50], which further highlights the importance of Baitashan Park in improving residents’ sense of safety and meeting social needs.

3.3. Participants

This study aims to investigate the relationship between CPTED, interpersonal needs, and perceived safety among different social classes (high and low) in urban parks. The sample size required for this investigation was determined by G*Power 3.1 software. Using F-tests and ANOVA (fixed effects, omnibus, one-way) with an a priori power analysis and an effect size (f) of 0.25 (medium), it was determined that a minimum sample size of 210 participants were required with a 5% confidence interval [51]. Accordingly, 420 paper questionnaires were distributed using simple random sampling. The inclusion criteria specify individuals aged 18–75 who are actively using the park, excluding those outside this age range. All participants were fully informed about the purpose of this study, participation in the questionnaire was entirely voluntary, and anonymity was ensured. Participants were assured that they could withdraw at any time without facing any adverse consequences. A total of 350 valid responses were collected, resulting in an effective response rate of 83.3%. Data collection occurred from January 2024 to February 2024.

3.4. Survey Instrument

This study designed a questionnaire to collect data to better understand the relationship between CPTED, interpersonal needs, and perceived safety in urban parks. The questionnaire contained two parts: The first was to collect basic information about the participants and obtain demographic information such as gender, age, education level, occupation, monthly income, etc. The second part was the central part of the questionnaire. The measurement of the independent variable CPTED is based on the study of Chen et al. [52]. At the same time, combined with the relevant literature on CPTED measurement in urban parks [53,54,55,56], 28 items at 6 latitudes were generated to measure CPTED (including 5 items of natural surveillance, 4 items of territoriality, 4 items of access control, 4 items of image and maintenance, 6 items of target hardening, and 5 items of activity support). Urban parks mainly express users’ interpersonal needs through interactions with friends, couples, and family [57]. Users can meet like-minded others, thus forming friendships and a sense of belonging to like-minded groups [58]. Secondly, spending quality time with family can strengthen family bonds and promote happiness [59] and cultivate feelings between couples [60]. Therefore, four items measuring the mediating variable interpersonal needs were generated based on the above literature and the positive relationship questionnaire developed by Mitskidou et al. [61]. Perceived safety as a dependent variable was based on the perceived safety questionnaire developed by Wang et al. [62] (including 3 items on safety environment perception, 4 items on safety emotion, and 4 items on control perception). The questionnaire used a 5-point Likert scale, with scores from 1 to 5 denoting from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The specific scale is shown in Table 1.

3.5. Socioeconomic Status (SES)

SES was measured by the user’s level of education, income, and occupation, as in previous studies on SES [63]. Users reported their occupation, highest education, and monthly income. Occupations were on a 5-point scale, with options from 1 to 5, including “unemployed”, “manual worker”, “sales and service worker”, “self-employed”, and “professional/official in institution”. Educational level was on a 5-point scale, with options from 1 to 5, including “secondary school or below”, “high school”, “junior college”, “undergraduate”, and “master’s degree or above”. Individual monthly income was based on a 5-point scale, from 1 to 5, which included “less than 4500 CNY”, “4500–5999 CNY”, “6000 to 7999 CNY”, “8000 to 9999 CNY”, and “more than 10,000 CNY”, respectively. Scores for occupation, educational level, and individual monthly income were converted into standard scores and then averaged to obtain SES scores, as applied in previous studies [64]. The higher the average score, the higher the SES.

3.6. Analytical Techniques

All data analysis was conducted using the SPSS 26.0 software package. As this study used a paper questionnaire, missing data were excluded during data entry, and there were no missing values for the items and variables from the 350 responses. Next, all hypothetical linear relationships, residuals, multivariate normality, variance, and multicollinearity were tested, and no violations were found. Descriptive statistics for each variable and the correlations between variables were then calculated.
To test the impact of CPTED in urban parks on perceived safety, the mediating and moderating effects were analyzed using Models 4 and 8 (Figure 3) from the Process Macro program developed by Hayes [65]. Model 4 examines the mediating effect of interpersonal needs, while Model 8 tests the moderating effect of SES. The significance of the regression coefficients was assessed using the bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method. To address the computational demands of the bootstrap method, the Process Macro program uses optimized algorithms, memory management, and parallel processing support, with customizable iterations to balance precision and efficiency [66]. In Process Macro, 5000 bootstrap samples were used, with a 95% confidence interval. Results are considered significant when the confidence interval does not contain 0.

4. Results

4.1. Preliminary Analysis

The descriptive statistics and correlation matrix (Pearson correlation) for the variables are shown in Table 2. The skewness and kurtosis of the variables were examined. Mehroof and Griffiths criteria [67]: skewness < |2.00| and kurtosis < |7.00|; thus, the variables in this study satisfy the normality distribution. As expected, urban park CPTED principles were positively correlated with perceived safety (r = 0.348, p < 0.001) and interpersonal needs (r = 0.383, p < 0.001). Interpersonal needs were positively correlated with perceived safety (r = 0.388, p < 0.001).

4.2. Testing for Mediation

First, H1 and H2 were tested using Model 4 [65] in Process Macro to test the direct impact and mediation effect. The results showed that the urban park CPTED principles were positively correlated with users’ interpersonal needs (β = 0.464, p < 0.001; see Model 2 in Table 3). In contrast, user interpersonal needs were positively correlated with perceived safety (β = 0.280, p < 0.001; see Model 3 in Table 3). At the same time, the direct impact of CPTED principles on perceived safety in urban parks was also significant (β = 0.260, p < 0.05; see Model 3 in Table 3). The deviation correction percentile guidance results showed that the indirect effect of urban park CPTED principles on perceived safety through user interpersonal needs was very significant (indirect effect = 0.130, SE = 0.027, 95% CI = [0.081, 0.189]), accounting for 33.3% of the total effect (0.260). Therefore, user interpersonal needs partially mediate the relationship between urban park CPTED principles and perceived safety, and the results support H1 and H2.

4.3. Testing for Moderated Mediation

To test H3, Process Macro Model 8 [65] was executed. To avoid multicollinearity, all predictors were normalized. The results show that phase 1 of the indirect path (CPTED-INs) (β = 0.180, p < 0.05; see Model 1 in Table 4) and the direct path of CPTED for PS (β = 0.160, p < 0.05; see Model 2 in Table 4) are regulated by SES.
To further explain the regulating effect of SES, SES was divided into high and low groups by adding and subtracting one standard deviation (M ± SD) from its mean, and a simple slope test was performed (Figure 4). The results in Figure 4a show that users with higher SES scores (B simple = 0.591, t = 7.415, p < 0.001, 95% CI [0.434, 0.748]) were more significant than those with lower SES scores (B simple = 0.262, t = 2.951, p > 0.001, 95% CI [0.087, 0.436]) in the predictive effect of CPTED on interpersonal needs. In other words, with the improvement in users’ SES, the impact of urban park CPTED principles on users’ interpersonal needs increases. Secondly, the results of Figure 4b show that the effect of CPTED on perceived security significantly increases for users with high SES (B simple = 0.085, t = 4.593, p < 0.001). Thus, the upward trend is insignificant for users with low SES (B simple = 0.083, t = 0.997, p > 0.05). Thus, the effect of CPTED on perceived security was significant for users with high SES (effect = 0.389, SE = 0.085, 95% CI = [0.223, 0.556]) and not significant for people with low SES (effect = 0.083, SE = 0.083, 95% CI = [−0.081, 0.247]). Therefore, H3 is supported.

5. Discussion

5.1. Key Findings

First, CPTED principles can positively predict the perceived safety of urban park users, which aligns with the findings of Chen et al. [52]. In most cases, visual cues and maintenance indicate that parks are well managed, deterring potential criminals, while road connectivity and adequate nighttime lighting enhance users’ perceived safety. The CPTED strategy for urban parks effectively promotes social participation, reduces crime rates, and increases overall happiness [68]. This highlights the significant role of CPTED theory in creating safer urban environments [16]. Furthermore, the Project Code for Landscape Architecture Engineering (GB 55014-2021), issued by the Ministry of Housing and Urban–Rural Development of the People’s Republic of China in 2021, emphasized the importance of prioritizing improvements in nighttime lighting. However, it is important to recognize that the relationship between CPTED principles and perceived safety is not always positive. Some studies have shown that certain CPTED principles, such as enhanced surveillance and excessive lighting, may send unsafe signals and undermine perceived safety [34]. Therefore, urban planners should carefully consider the degree of CPTED implementation when renovating urban parks to ensure the safety of urban park environments.
Secondly, the CPTED principles of urban parks influence users’ perceived safety through the mediating effect of interpersonal needs. This suggests that interpersonal needs are both essential and direct factors affecting the perceived safety of urban park users. Environmental cognition theory posits that an individual’s behavioral needs are influenced by their surroundings [69]. The urban park environment can shape an individual’s need patterns and affect their perceived safety. Furthermore, CPTED theory highlights the importance of integrating Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in future research to enhance urban livability and safety [16]. While Maslow’s hierarchy suggests that needs are structured hierarchically, recent research indicates that this structure is not strictly linear but is instead more dynamic and interdependent [70]. Many studies support this perspective. For example, ensuring timely and close contact between users and their families, couples, friends, and other park users helps strengthen family relationships and friendships, better meeting interpersonal needs and promoting the perceived safety of urban park users [57]. Studies also suggest that familiarity with people around them in urban parks reduces their fear of the environment [71,72]. In addition, socioemotional selectivity theory suggests that people gradually turn to emotionally related social goals as they age [73]. As one of the preferred spaces for urban entertainment, the urban parks ensure the smooth flow of emotional communication among users, especially those of older people, who organize square dances, choirs, and other activities to promote interpersonal needs. At the same time, CPTED principles point out that activity support can effectively reduce users’ fear and increase perceived safety [74]. Therefore, implementing urban park CPTED principles can promote the perceived safety of users by meeting their interpersonal needs.
Finally, SES moderates the first half of the mediating process in the “CPTED–interpersonal needs–perceived safety” pathway, as well as the direct path in “CPTED–perceived safety”. Maslow’s theory does not fully account for cultural and social diversity, nor the fact that individuals may be motivated by intrinsic rewards rather than solely by the fulfillment of basic needs [14]. However, higher SES tends to increase needs [75]. Our findings show that CPTED significantly predicts interpersonal needs in both high and low SES groups. Still, users with high SES had stronger interpersonal needs than those with low SES. In short, regardless of SES, users have interpersonal needs. However, it is important to note that users with low SES may prioritize physiological and safety needs over other interpersonal needs [76]. Additionally, when SES is high, the predictive effect of urban park CPTED on perceived safety is significant. In contrast, the predictive impact is insignificant for users with low SES, as they may visit less safe or poorly designed urban parks, resulting in a lower sense of security. In comparison, users with higher SES are more likely to visit safer or better-designed parks, leading to a heightened sense of perceived safety. These results are consistent with previous studies [77,78]. In summary, optimizing CPTED principles in urban parks and narrowing SES disparities are effective ways to enhance perceived safety for all park users.
In conclusion, this study emphasizes the importance of CPTED principles in improving perceived safety, addressing interpersonal needs, and mitigating SES disparities. These findings are particularly valuable for guiding urban planning and park management in cities like Lanzhou, where safety and inclusion are crucial priorities due to diverse socioeconomic conditions and high population densities. While our study highlights the significance of implementing CPTED principles in specific contexts, it also acknowledges the challenges posed by user needs, SES, and cultural differences in park design. Therefore, urban planners should adopt evidence-based, user-centric approaches to ensure that safety in urban parks is equitably and meaningfully improved [79].

5.2. Implications for Theory and Practice

This study combines the CPTED, environmental cognitive, and hierarchy of needs theories and expands the scope of application of CPTED theory. This study proposes the mediating role of satisfying interpersonal needs in the relationship between CPTED strategy and perceived safety, emphasizing the importance of urban park design to meet interpersonal needs and improving perceived safety, making up for the gap of insufficient attention to interpersonal needs in existing research, and emphasizing a human-centered design strategy [80]. In addition, this study verifies the moderating role of SES in this process, reveals the differences in the needs and behaviors of users from different backgrounds, and provides a new perspective for expanding CPTED theory in sociology. In conclusion, this study constructs a moderated mediation model, which systematically explains how the CPTED strategy affects perceived safety and the moderating effect of SES through interpersonal needs, provides an operational theoretical framework and hypothetical model for future research, and further promotes the development and practical application of environmental psychology and sociological theories.
This study reveals the mechanism that influences CPTED principles and users’ perceived safety and provides clear guidance for optimizing the design and management of urban parks. In particular, it provides a reference for the design and management of urban parks similar to Baitashan Park in Lanzhou, supporting the creation of more inclusive, safe, and sustainable urban public spaces [81]. In addition, the results of this study provide differentiated design suggestions for public policymakers based on different population backgrounds, especially in improving the sense of safety of the low SES group and optimizing the allocation of park resources, which has important practical value. This not only contributes to community cohesion but also promotes the sustainable development of the city and the overall improvement of the quality of life [82].

5.3. Limitations and Future Directions

This study provides a theoretical framework for understanding how urban park CPTED principles affect perceived safety through interpersonal needs. However, there are several areas for improvement. First, this study focuses on the impact of CPTED principles and perceived safety. It remains unclear whether the sense of fear, which is inversely related to perceived safety, produces opposite results. This is especially relevant since environmental design is generally considered to have a positive effect in most cases [83]. Second, although the analysis and discussion in this study are grounded in existing research, further work is needed to fully uncover the underlying mechanisms between CPTED principles and perceived safety. Finally, the extent to which the findings, based on urban park users in Lanzhou, China, can be generalized to other cities or parks remains uncertain. Given that the effectiveness of CPTED principles may vary in different urban environments, additional research is required to assess their applicability in other contexts [84].

6. Conclusions

CPTED has long been recognized as a critical factor in enhancing perceived safety; however, certain underlying mechanisms of its influence remain unclear. Drawing upon environmental cognition theory and CPTED theory, this study proposes a comprehensive theoretical framework—a moderating mediation model—to explore these potential impact mechanisms. The relationship between CPTED and perceived safety can be mediated by interpersonal needs and moderated by SES. Data were collected from 350 users of Baitashan Park in Lanzhou, China. The analysis reveals a positive correlation between CPTED principles and perceived safety, with interpersonal needs identified as a potential mediating mechanism. Additionally, the initial phase of moderation is influenced by SES. The indirect impact of CPTED on perceived safety through interpersonal needs is significant for users with both higher and lower SES. SES also moderates the direct relationship between CPTED and perceived safety, with the impact of CPTED principles being significant only for users with higher SES.
Theoretically, this study contributes to the literature by presenting a framework that explains the “how” and “for whom” of urban park CPTED effects on perceived safety. The findings suggest several avenues for optimizing CPTED principles in urban parks to enhance perceived safety. This research provides valuable insights for practitioners and policymakers involved in urban park planning and public safety initiatives.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.H. and M.H.M.; methodology, F.H. and M.H.M.; validation, F.H. and M.H.M.; formal analysis, F.H.; investigation, F.H.; resources, F.H., M.H.M. and M.J.M.T.; writing—original draft preparation, F.H., M.H.M., M.J.M.T. and A.A.; writing—review and editing, F.H., M.H.M., M.J.M.T. and A.A.; supervision, M.H.M. and M.J.M.T.; funding acquisition, M.H.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia for providing financial supports under FRGS grant number 203/PPBGN/6712098, with a Reference Code of FRGS/1/2022/SSI02/USM/02/3.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in this study.

Data Availability Statement

Data are contained within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Urbansci 09 00009 g001
Figure 1. Research model.
Figure 1. Research model.
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Figure 2. (a–d) A map of the Baitashan Park (the base map of (d) is from Google Maps).
Figure 2. (a–d) A map of the Baitashan Park (the base map of (d) is from Google Maps).
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Figure 3. Conceptual diagram (left: Model 4; right: Model 8) [65].
Figure 3. Conceptual diagram (left: Model 4; right: Model 8) [65].
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Figure 4. (a) SES moderates the relationship between CPTED and interpersonal needs; (b) SES moderates the relationship between CPTED and perceived safety.
Figure 4. (a) SES moderates the relationship between CPTED and interpersonal needs; (b) SES moderates the relationship between CPTED and perceived safety.
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Table 1. Scale design and descriptive statistics (N = 350).
Table 1. Scale design and descriptive statistics (N = 350).
ConstructItemDescriptionMeanSd
CPTED: (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree)
SurveillanceS1Security devices and lighting equipment are properly installed for safety in this park.3.3601.226
S2Security guard service in this park is acceptable.3.3401.267
S3Security Administration and security patrols in this park is acceptable.3.2801.276
S4There is no obstacle on the boarders and entrances of this park, which do not interrupt the view.3.3401.235
S5Crowds can reduce potential infringement in this park.3.3501.239
TerritorialityT1The spatial boundary is clear and well-defined in this park.3.2101.210
T2Users can distinguish various functional areas by different topographical designs in this park.3.1801.279
T3Fences or plantings can clearly define and delineates between private, semi-private and public spaces in this park.3.2201.224
T4Plant configuration is reasonable and these plants cannot obscure users’ views.3.2001.228
Access ControlAC1The design of the entrance space is appropriate and clearly identified.3.3701.264
AC2The road connectivity design are appropriate and well.3.3501.234
AC3The design and layout of parks signage play an important role.3.3901.172
AC4Accesses to this park is clear and easily identifiable.3.3701.216
Image and MaintenanceIM1Inside of the park are clean and well maintained.3.2401.275
IM2Park facilities (such as benches, dustbins, and signage) are well-maintained.3.2901.307
IM3Lighting system works well especially in the nighttime.3.2601.281
IM4There is no malicious graffiti phenomenon.3.2101.307
Target HardeningTH1The safety bulletin boards in this park are appropriately located and sufficient.3.2901.287
TH2The service center staff in this park are helpful and approachable.3.3101.216
TH3This park has a convenient parking.3.3101.208
TH4This park has protective fence in the danger zone (such as lake).3.2601.236
TH5This park has a good safety alarm system.3.3301.189
TH6This park provides sufficient lighting during dark hours.3.3001.213
Activity SupportAS1This park provides safety and positive atmosphere for users.3.2601.226
AS2Users in this park have sense of belonging to this area and willing to stay longer.3.3201.216
AS3The safety facilities in this park (e.g., CCTVs, security guards, firefighting) meet my expectations.3.2901.220
AS4The park induces local users to use park and participate in events (such as celebrate festivals, campaigns, etc.).3.3001.258
AS5During the events held, security will be intensifying patrol.3.2501.194
Interpersonal Needs: (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree)
IN1I need a park where I strengthen friendships among friends.3.3101.282
IN2I need a park that enriches family relationships.3.2901.283
IN3I need a park where I can develop relationships with others.3.2901.247
IN4I need a park where couples can socialize.3.3601.230
Perceived Safety: (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree)
Safety Environment PerceptionSEP1I feel that the lighting and design in this park minimize dark or obstructed spaces.3.2101.292
SEP2I am not worried about being infested by annoying or scary animals or insects in this park.3.2501.273
SEP3No obstacles on the road to this park prevent me from escaping from danger.3.2301.319
Safety EmotionSE1This park atmosphere makes me feel comfortable.3.3301.239
SE2I don’t feel alone in this park.3.2701.220
SE3I can ease my anxiety in this park.3.3601.235
SE4I do not feel scared when I visit this park.3.4301.255
Control PerceptionCP1If I am in danger, I can quickly seek help from the managers/park staff in this park.3.3001.356
CP2If I am in danger, I can easily seek help from others in this park.3.3201.329
CP3If I am in danger, I can quickly find shelter in this park to hide or protect myself.3.2501.309
CP4If I am in danger, I can quickly determine the direction of travel and escape in this park.3.3501.329
Source(s): Created by authors.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics and correlations among variables.
No.ConstructMeanSDSkewnessKurtosis1234
1CPTED3.2900.900−0.020−1.1201
2INs3.3201.080−0.060−1.1700.383 **1
3PS3.3001.020−0.250−1.1300.348 **0.388 **1
4SES3.0900.970−0.150−1.1100.120 *0.185 **0.111 *1
N = 350; CPTED = Crime Prevention through Environmental Design; INs = interpersonal needs; PS = perceived safety. ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05 (2-tailed).
Table 3. Testing the mediating effect between interpersonal needs on CPTED principles and perceived security.
Table 3. Testing the mediating effect between interpersonal needs on CPTED principles and perceived security.
PredictorModel 1: PSModel 2: INsModel 3: PS
βSEtβSEtβSEt
CPTED0.3900.0576.838 ***0.4640.0607.780 ***0.2600.0594.394 ***
INs 0.2800.0495.710 ***
R20.118 0.148 0.194
F46.760 *** 60.534 *** 41.804 ***
N = 350; CPTED = Crime Prevention through Environmental Design; INs = interpersonal needs; PS = perceived safety; *** p < 0.001.
Table 4. Testing the moderating effect of SES.
Table 4. Testing the moderating effect of SES.
PredictorModel 1: INsModel 2: PS
βSEtβSEt
CPTED0.4220.0597.140 ***0.2400.0604.070 ***
INs 0.2600.0505.190 ***
SES0.1490.0552.730 *0.0200.0500.470
CPTED*SES0.1750.0622.850 *0.1600.0602.540 *
INs*SES 0.0700.0501.300
R20.185 0.220
F26.240 *** 19.930 ***
N = 350; CPTED = Crime Prevention through Environmental Design; INs = interpersonal needs; PS = perceived safety; *** p < 0.001, * p < 0.05.
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Hou, F.; Hedayati Marzbali, M.; Maghsoodi Tilaki, M.J.; Abdullah, A. Rethinking Urban Greening: Implications of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design for Enhancing Perceived Safety in Baitashan Park, Lanzhou. Urban Sci. 2025, 9, 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9010009

AMA Style

Hou F, Hedayati Marzbali M, Maghsoodi Tilaki MJ, Abdullah A. Rethinking Urban Greening: Implications of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design for Enhancing Perceived Safety in Baitashan Park, Lanzhou. Urban Science. 2025; 9(1):9. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9010009

Chicago/Turabian Style

Hou, Fei, Massoomeh Hedayati Marzbali, Mohammad Javad Maghsoodi Tilaki, and Aldrin Abdullah. 2025. "Rethinking Urban Greening: Implications of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design for Enhancing Perceived Safety in Baitashan Park, Lanzhou" Urban Science 9, no. 1: 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9010009

APA Style

Hou, F., Hedayati Marzbali, M., Maghsoodi Tilaki, M. J., & Abdullah, A. (2025). Rethinking Urban Greening: Implications of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design for Enhancing Perceived Safety in Baitashan Park, Lanzhou. Urban Science, 9(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.3390/urbansci9010009

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