Long-Term Frameworks for Food Security and Sustainability Through Climate-Smart Interconnected Agrifood Systems

Abstract

Global food instability is attributable to multiple significant threats, such as climate change, geopolitical instability, emerging trade policies, health crises, and insufficient technological readiness. Agrifood systems are implicated at various and interconnected levels. The international community, along with subordinate entities, is addressing these risks by formulating specific policies and methodologies. This review adopts a holistic approach to understanding the interactions across agrifood systems, encompassing production, processing, transportation, and consumption. The methodology involves an extensive review of the academic literature, case studies, and statistical data from global organizations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), to assess vulnerabilities and identify sustainable practices. Key sectors within agriculture, such as agroecology, organic farming, aquaculture, hydroponics, and precision agriculture are analyzed for their potential to enhance productivity while reducing environmental impact. This analysis also explores widely adopted concepts, policies, and methodologies aimed at monitoring risks and disseminating effective practices across the sector. By integrating emerging technologies and policy frameworks, the review underscores the critical role of climate-smart agriculture, sustainable water management, and agronomic practices in supporting resilient and sustainable food systems. The findings provide actionable insights for advancing food security and achieving global sustainability goals and support the decision-making process.

1. Introduction

Agrifood systems are built around essential commodities that the global population interacts with every day, either directly or indirectly. Since humankind has risen, the search for food has been a crucial activity. The development of agricultural practices marked a transformative point, enabling communities to settle and prosper, which in turn allowed for advancements in humanities and sciences, such as philosophy, politics, and medicine, that would have been impossible to pursue if humanity had remained solely focused on survival for food [1].

Currently, agrifood systems occupy a central position in addressing the world’s most critical challenges: ensuring food security and advancing sustainability amid the pressures of climate change and population growth. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) has become integral to these agrifood systems, emphasizing context-specific practices that boost productivity, enhance resilience, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This paper explores the complex interconnections within agrifood systems and evaluates strategies for effective mitigation and adaptation through climate-smart approaches. Understanding the dynamic relationships across agricultural practices, such as food production, logistics, consumption, waste management, and environmental conservation, is essential for creating robust solutions that support resilient, sustainable food systems [2].

From agricultural production and post-harvest handling to transportation, marketing, and consumption, these interconnected sectors play a pivotal role in advancing food security and environmental sustainability, increasingly guided by climate-smart principles [3].

This paper adopts a cradle-to-grave perspective, examining key concepts, challenges, and opportunities within interconnected agrifood sectors and proposing integrated strategies to advance global sustainability. The focus is toward CSA, which is a context-specific approach aimed at transforming agrifood systems toward sustainable, climate-resilient practices. It supports global goals like the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Paris Agreement by focusing on three key objectives: boosting agricultural productivity and incomes, enhancing climate resilience, and minimizing greenhouse gas emissions, where feasible.

2. Materials and Methods

In this section, CSA is presented and analyzed within a broad context, and its applications across the agrifood sector are explored.

When referring to agrifood, the primary sector that comes to mind is agriculture centered on crop cultivation and livestock rearing to generate raw agricultural products. Yet, a holistic view should also include related activities in fisheries, aquaculture, and forestry. Sustainable practices such as CSA, which encompasses agroecology and precision agriculture, are crucial for increasing productivity while reducing environmental impact. Moreover, crop diversification, limited and controlled pesticide application, and efficient water management are vital for strengthening ecosystem resilience [4].

The agrifood system, with its diverse and interconnected sectors, offers substantial potential to support sustainable development and food security. The complexity of these systems requires a comprehensive and holistic approach and an understanding of the various interactions within. The need for a unified global effort to refine these strategies is essential to achieving sustainability and food security goals [5].

Agricultural production is a multifaceted, worldwide undertaking. The most recent data from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) serve as an essential resource for evaluating global production levels, as well as the use of soil. According to the FAO World Food and Agriculture Statistical Yearbook 2023 [6], the global agricultural land area in 2021 was approximately 4.79 billion hectares. Of this, two-thirds (3.21 billion hectares) were used for permanent meadows and pastures, which saw a 5% decrease since 2000. Cropland accounted for the remaining one-third (1.58 billion hectares), which grew by 6% during the same period. Agricultural land saw an 86-million-hectare reduction from 2000 to 2021, while forest area declined by 104 million hectares. Regional land distribution varies significantly, with Asia holding the highest percentage of agricultural land at around 35% (Figure 1) and Europe having the largest share of forest land at 46%. In 2021, total fisheries and aquaculture production (excluding algae) reached 182 million tonnes, marking a 45% growth from 2000. This includes a significant expansion in aquaculture, which has driven most of the increase. Capture fishery production has remained stable at around 90 million tonnes per year, with notable variations due to ecosystem productivity, fishing management, and climate impact. Including algae, total fishery and aquaculture production in 2021 reached 218 million tonnes, with aquaculture accounting for 58% of this production. For forestry, global roundwood production increased from 3.5 billion cubic meters in 2000 to 4 billion cubic meters in 2021. This production included wood fuel (49%), coniferous industrial roundwood (30%), and non-coniferous industrial roundwood (21%). Asia and the Americas are the leading roundwood producers, followed closely by Africa and Europe.

2.1. Climate-Smart Agriculture

Climate change majorly threatens the agriculture sector in both global food security and agricultural production. Climate change negatively impacts the entire agrifood sector, since agriculture, fisheries and aquaculture, and forestry rely on natural resources (e.g., soil, water, organisms, etc.) that are affected by the externalities of climate change [7]. Climate change’s negative impacts are already being felt in the form of increasing temperatures, weather variability, shifting agroecosystem boundaries, invasive crops and pests, and more frequent extreme weather events [8].

Agricultural production and productivity are impacted in multiple ways: (i) higher temperatures affect plant health, increase the occurrence of pests, and lower water availability; (ii) modified rainfall patterns reduce water availability and shift rainy seasons, with consequences for farming systems; (iii) the enhanced frequency of weather extremes worsens supply variability; (iv) enhanced carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentration in the atmosphere may improve yields and crop productivity in some cases; and (v) the rise in sea level and frequent flooding generate losses for farmers and countries. Thus, climate change will have serious effects on food security for many countries. This is most visible in sectors reliant on water and land [9].

Water scarcity is one of the greatest challenges of the twenty-first century. Agriculture, encompassing crops, livestock, fisheries, aquaculture, and forestry, is both a cause and a victim of water scarcity. The need to address water scarcity is imminent: agriculture accounts for the bulk of global water withdrawals, a need intensified by extreme temperatures and a growing population. Water withdrawals increased at almost twice the rate of the population in the twentieth century, and a 50% surge in food demand is expected by 2050. These matters most severely affect water-scarce regions and areas where a lack of infrastructure or capacity prevents sufficient access to water.

Agriculture sectors must focus on adapting healthy soil practices to adapt to a changing climate, produce sufficient feed, and lower emissions. Soil organic matter, with carbon as its main component, is crucial to soil health and fertility, water infiltration and retention, and food production. Soil is also a major carbon sink, absorbing almost ⅓ of carbon emissions that drive the climate crisis. Plants capture atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) through photosynthesis and convert it into carbon (C) that is assimilated into their biomass, including both above-ground and below-ground plant parts. This biomass serves as a short-term carbon sequestration strategy. However, for long-term carbon sequestration, the focus shifts to soil organic carbon (SOC). In this context, plant roots play a crucial role as they are the primary pathway through which carbon enters the SOC pool [10].

Disrupting soils through anthropogenic practices, like industrial farming and tilling, and land degradation as a result of climate change, such as drought, floods, and wind erosion, work symbiotically to degrade this critical and precious ecosystem. The answer lies in preserving and restoring soil health and letting nature capture carbon from the atmosphere. Regenerative agriculture and Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices that maintain soil health through methods like no-till, cover cropping, and no-spray agriculture can preserve land and intensify soil’s role as a carbon sink [11].

Extreme weather events that result from climate change will impact the yields of the world’s most vital crops. Wheat, rice, maize, and soybean harvests, crops that provide ⅔ of human caloric intake and livestock feed, will decrease with increasing temperature and be unable to feed the population. Such food insecurity and hunger can also lead to political instability and civil strife, which will further destabilize agricultural markets and operations. According to the FAO, based on current trends, climate change is projected to reduce global yields by 17% by 2050, while the population will increase to 9.1 billion. The agriculture sector must significantly step up production, but only through sustainable and climate-smart solutions.

Unfortunately, climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts have been hampered in recent years due to global threats, such as health crises and geopolitical instability. CSA practices that include healthy land, water, and food measures must be implemented as soon as possible to account for the changing climate and increasing population [12].

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) is a holistic approach developed and supported by the FAO in its Strategic Framework 2022–2023. CSA aims to develop contextual and tailor-made agricultural strategies for sustainable agrifood systems under climate change [13].

It offers a comprehensive approach that supports inclusive, sustainable, and resilient agrifood systems by addressing climate-related challenges [14] (Hansen et al., 2019). Such solutions are possible because the CSA approach acts per the three dimensions of sustainable development:

• economic, social, and environmental considerations to sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes;
• adjusting and strengthening resilience to the impacts of climate change; and
• limiting and/or removing Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions.

CSA is an approach that requires context- and site-specific assessments to identify suitable agricultural production technologies and practices [15] (FAO, 2013), depending on local socioeconomic, environmental, and climate change factors. CSA processes must also support gender equality and include instruments to increase small-scale farmers’ access to credit, insurance, extension, and advisory services [16].

A successful transition to and implementation of CSA includes the establishment of an enabling environment, meaning that institutions, governments, and other structures are supportive and available [15].

CSA provides tools to support countries to develop the necessary policy and technical and financial means to mainstream climate change concerns into agricultural sectors.

The CSA’s definition includes three pillars (Figure 2) underlining the idea that CSA should produce triple-win outcomes. However, it is not always possible to achieve all three simultaneously. The State of Food and Agriculture [16] recognized that not every practice applied in every location will, can, or even should generate “triple wins”; however, all three objectives must be considered to arrive at locally acceptable solutions that reflect local or national priorities. During the implementation of CSA, it is crucial to identify trade-offs, recognize synergies, and evaluate the costs and benefits of different options based on stakeholder objectives, all identified through participatory approaches. Meeting these pillars can be considered at broader scales, as CSA does not imply that every practice in every field needs to contribute to food security, adaptation, and mitigation [17].

In the SDGs frame, CSA is an approach that calls for the integration of the need for adaptation and the possibility of mitigation in agricultural growth strategies to support food security. The World Bank and the Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) programme have launched a set of “country CSA profiles”.

These offer essential evaluations of current and potential future practices, as well as the institutional and financial mechanisms that support CSA adoption. In addition, the carbon balance tool (EX-ACT, used in over 20 countries) is crucial for assessing the mitigating effect of planned food security, agriculture policies, and projects. There is a favorable environment for the uptake of CSA through the development of strategies, policies, and investments, particularly at national levels [18]. However, it is of the utmost importance to provide such activities with metrics to measure the success of interventions, long-term funding, and targeted results on the ground [19]. CSA technologies and practices present opportunities for addressing climate change challenges, increasing territorial resilience and stimulating socio-economic growth within agricultural systems [20].

2.2. Sustainable Water Management Techniques

Agriculture is the largest consumer of the world’s freshwater resources, requiring more than 70% of available freshwater supply [21]. According to the FAO, India has the highest total freshwater withdrawal for agricultural purposes, amounting to approximately 761 billion cubic meters per year [22]. As the world’s population increases, while climate change has caused extreme weather events, such as drought or flooding, water management is becoming an increasingly important issue. Water management in agriculture is crucial for its sustainability in the long run although very complex. Due to this complexity, CSA-related practices for water management take into consideration various aspects of interconnected agricultural activities (e.g., soil, crop, livestock, fisheries, landscape management, etc.). As an example, in the agrifood systems, water management in rainfed and irrigated agricultural systems across different scales, such as farm level, irrigation systems, and national or river basin levels, is the most adopted worldwide [23]. Under rainfed agriculture, improved water management can be achieved through CSA techniques such as water harvesting and sustainable soil management practices (i.e., capture and retention of rainfall, emergency irrigation, etc.), as well as through soil fertility and crop management innovations, which enhance water use efficiency and hence crop growth and yield.

In irrigated systems, improved water management for greater water use efficiency is achievable at many stages in the process of irrigation. Sustainable water management contributes in terms of productivity, mitigation, and adaptation to CSA. In particular, innovations aiming to improve the capture and retention of rainfall, or the scheduling and application of irrigation water, increase crop productivity. Furthermore, water management innovations can reduce the risk of water resource competition for other human uses and can also limit energy consumption for pumping, thereby reducing related emissions. The use of drip and sprinkler irrigation increases farms’ profitability through an effective use of labor, energy, and water while reducing costs and increasing their resilience during prolonged drought periods. Digital irrigation solutions also help in saving water, cultivate more land with less water, and increase family incomes. Furthermore, less pumping for water leads to lower CO₂ emissions. Water harvesting is practiced in arid and semi-arid regions to enhance the availability of water for irrigation in agriculture. It allows farmers to reduce or avoid runoff, with positive impacts on soil quality conservation. Three categories of small-scale water storage can be distinguished: (1) soil moisture storage, (2) groundwater storage, and (3) surface storage. These CSA practices increase farm resilience to face the uncertainty of precipitation due to climate change. Other more recently adopted water saving CSA practices are Hydroponics, the cultivation of plants without the use of soil, and Aquaponics, fishes and plants growing together within the same environment. In particular, Aquaponics is a symbiotic integration of two mature disciplines, which are aquaculture and hydroponics, using three groups of organisms (bacteria, plants, and fish) that make up the aquaponic ecosystem. Such a type of soilless agriculture allows for the cultivation of high-value crops, in conditions of highly efficient use of input, such as land, water, and nutrients. Both techniques increase the efficiency of use of fertilizers by reducing their losses due to leaching or runoff.

2.3. Agronomic Practices in CSA

CSA agronomic practices can be widely applied to different territories and cultivars and can be also used simultaneously. The most widely adopted methods are Conservation Agriculture (CA), integrated crop management, crop diversification, integrated soil fertility management, agroecology, organic agriculture, and the use of organic fertilizers [15]. CA is a farming system introduced in the 1930s, the aim of which is to prevent losses of arable land and regenerate degraded lands. It promotes the maintenance of a permanent soil cover, minimum soil disturbance, the diversification of plant species, the retention of crop residues or other surface cover, and the use of crop rotation. CA systems maintain higher infiltration rates and conserve soil moisture, helping to overcome seasonal dry spells. Immediate economic benefits, such as reduced labor requirements, make CA more attractive in the short term to farmers who cannot afford to wait for several seasons until yield benefits accrue. CA also reduces the use of fossil fuels, since avoiding ploughing saves fuel, and guarantees stable yields, drought buffering, reduced field preparation costs, soil erosion, and contributions to climate change mitigation [24].

Other CA techniques are drip irrigation, the promotion of rotational grazing systems, pastureland management, and the selection of adapted breeds and manure management techniques. Integrated crop management is a farming technique which balances the requirements of running a profitable business with responsibility and sensitivity to the environment. It includes methods that avoid waste generation, enhance energy efficiency, preserve biodiversity, and minimize pollution. Crop diversification helps farmers to spread production and economic risks over a broader range of crops, thus reducing financial risks associated with unfavorable weather or market shocks. In addition, the association of species enables them to improve the nutrient balance and biology of the soil. Moreover, choosing crop species and varieties that are well-adapted to prevalent and expected impacts of climate change such as drought, salinity, and flooding and are efficient in using water and nutrient resources is an essential component of the climate-smart crop production system. Integrated soil fertility management is an approach based on principles such as the combination of mineral fertilizers and organic matter; the use of well-adapted, disease- and pest-resistant germplasm, which is necessary to make efficient use of available nutrients; and the adoption of good agronomic practices to ensure the efficient use of scarce nutrient resources. In addition to these principles, it recognizes the need to target nutrient resources within crop rotation cycles, preferably including legumes for their nitrogen-fixing functions. Organic agriculture and the use of organic fertilizers are other CSA practices. In Europe, the EU Green Deal has fixed the minimum percentage of area to be cultivated with organic agriculture to 25%, due to its positive impacts on soil and biodiversity. In addition, the use of organic fertilizers has the advantage of being cheap, while improving soil structure, texture, and aeration increases the soils’ water retention abilities and stimulates healthy root development. Organic fertilizers have many sources such as minerals, animal sources, sewage sludge, and plants. They have less impact on soils and do not overfeed plants, and rainstorms are less likely to wash them away compared to chemical fertilizers [25].

2.4. ITC Technologies and Tools in CSA

Among the above-mentioned agronomic practices, ITC technologies, digitalization, and remote sensors are also used in support of such practices and can be considered CSA applications. In fact, the process of integrating advanced digital technologies, like artificial intelligence, big data, robotics, sensors, and communication networks, with agronomic practices is fundamental in providing information for risk prevention and climate change mitigation [26]. ITC technologies are, for instance, remote sensors for measuring, for example, an amount of water and transmitting it to computer, software for a digitalization of agricultural activities and more. For instance, some examples of ITC technologies developed by the FAO and adopted worldwide are the Agricultural Stress Index System (ASIS), which monitors agricultural areas prone to water stress/drought at global, regional, and country levels using satellite technology, and the programme CROPWAT, which is a computer program for the calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation requirements based on soil, climate, and crop data.

2.5. Embedding Renewable Energy in Agrifood Systems

Agrifood systems and the entire food value chain are great consumers of energy, with a consequent impact on GHG emissions in the atmosphere [27]. The importance of renewable energy to be used starting at the farm level until the processing and distribution phase is to be considered a CSA practice. Not only does the use of solar, wind, and bioenergy need to be implemented in the system. Solar-powered irrigation systems are new technologies to mitigate measures’ carbon footprint and address ever-increasing fuel costs. It has been estimated that a possible decrease in GHG emissions per unit of energy used for water pumping (CO₂-eq/kWh) can total up to 97–98%, compared to normal electricity and diesel-pumps [28].

Among sustainable energies, the conversion of livestock wastes into biogas is considered a CSA practice. The biogas produced is collected and passed in pipes to stoves and forms natural gas used mainly for domestic purposes. The by-product of biogas production, which is named digestate, is collected and also used as an organic fertilizer for crop cultivation. The use of digestate allows farmers to recycle water and nutrients, increasing efficiency. Biogas production allows them to diversify farm production and increase access to modern energy forms and serves as an efficient strategy for waste disposal [29]. The FAO has identified converting waste into biogas as one practice that supports CSA objectives.

2.6. CSA Practices for Sustainable Livestock Management

Climate change has considerable impacts on livestock production, including a substantial reduction in forage and heat stress in animals. Higher temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events impact on the spread and severity of existing vector-borne diseases and macro-parasites [30].

Livestock management contributes to CSA on productivity, adaptation, and mitigation, with interventions that target improved feed resources and grazing management for productivity. For example, interventions aiming to increase heat tolerance through breeding and effective animal cooling systems increase productivity. Livestock early warning systems can help pastoralists to manage climate related risks associated with extreme weather events. In mixed crop–livestock systems, risks can be reduced via the addition and/or substitution of crop and livestock species and breeds that are more tolerant of heat or drought. Improved grazing management can also increase carbon sequestration in soil, and emissions can also be reduced by compacting and covering farmyard manure. Other opportunities exist, such as the use of feed additives, such as algae, that modify the production of methane by ruminants [31]. The main CSA practices in livestock deal with sustainable management. In particular, they are:

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Grazing or pastureland management: improved pastureland and grazing management can reduce soil degradation and erosion by water and wind while increasing biomass and creating more sustainable livelihoods. The introduction of grass species and legumes in rangelands can accelerate atmospheric carbon sequestration in soils due to their capacity to naturally fix nitrogen in the soil. Enteric emission intensities can also be lowered, limiting grazing pressure, since with less pressure animals have a wider choice and tend to select more nutritious forage, associated with faster rates of live weight gain.

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Feed management and disease control: the use of specific diets, for example, with the use of supplements in the feed (e.g., use of algae such as Asparagopsis spp.), can limit the release of methane. The use of vaccines can prevent animal deaths and limit the use of antibiotics. The use of organic feeds in breeding can help in reducing GHG emissions in an indirect way.

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Pasture management: this can help in mitigation with the sowing of improved varieties of pasture, typically the replacement of native grasses with higher yielding and more digestible forages, including perennial fodders, pastures, and legumes.

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Herd management: this can enhance productivity in the sector by using indigenous breeds, reducing age at first calving, extending lactation persistence, and maximizing annual weaner turnover.

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Animal breeding management: this can lower methane emissions and increase productivity through the selection of more productive animals.

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Manure management: this uses practices such as fertilizing the soil, recycling, and biodigestion techniques. Manure resources can be stored, treated, and used to enrich soils in an environmentally sustainable manner through biogas production.

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Rotational grazing: this implies a regular moving of livestock between paddocks, which intensifies grazing pressure for a relatively short period of time, leaving a rest period for regrowth in between rotations and adjusting to match the livestock’s needs with the availability of pasture resources. Through targeted temporal grazing exclusions, rotational grazing allows for a good maintenance of forages at a relatively earlier growth stage. This practice enhances the quality and digestibility of the forage, improves the productivity of the system, and reduces methane emissions per unit of live weight gain.

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Improved livestock rearing conditions: improving in-house animal rearing conditions (shading and sprinklers, ventilation systems) improves conditions for livestock production. Improving animal rearing conditions decreases methane emissions

2.7. CSA Practices for Sustainable Forestry Management

Forestry and agroforestry play a significant role in counteracting climate change. Forests provide the population with a variety of ecosystem services (e.g., food, fuel, water, carbon sequestration, biodiversity, etc.). The FAO estimates that 2.4 billion people cook using wood fuel and that wood energy is a major source of primary energy in developing regions. Forests and trees on farms are an important carbon sink, and this potential can be increased through afforestation efforts. Deforestation, which is a consequence of agriculture, is the major cause of emissions from the forestry sector. Efforts of CSA should adopt integrated approaches with the scope of mitigating emissions from the sector by reducing deforestation and increasing forest cover. Agroforestry is a CSA practice that prevents risks, increases biodiversity and production, and together with Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) improves climate-smart forestry [32]. In particular, the FAO defines Agroforestry as a land-use system and technologies where the use of perennial woody are used on the same land-management parcel, as spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. The SFM, according to the FAO, is a “dynamic and evolving concept, which aims to maintain and enhance the economic, social and environmental values of all types of forests”. In fact, forests make crucial contributions to human communities when sustainably managed while supporting livelihoods, providing clean air and water, conserving biodiversity, and responding to climate change. The harvest of crops and other plants together with trees requires less labor and ameliorates the Good Environmental Status (GES) of forests and soils. The major practices in Agroforestry are wood pastures, hedgerows, intercropped and grazed orchards, grazed forests, and alley cropping. Wood pastures have a wide diversity of forms and expressions, ranging from scattered trees in a pasture—a ‘savannah’—to closed-canopy forests with high tree density grazed by livestock. Hedgerows are typically woody bushes, shrubs, or trees that serve as a living barrier of the border. They are rows of tree or shrub species that grow around edges, borders, or perimeters of crop fields to promote soil and water conservation. Intercropped and grazed orchards are systems that use the same parcel orchards or grove fruit trees or plantations of trees grown for high-value timber combined with agricultural crops (chickpeas and barley) or grass grazed by animals. Such mixed techniques help with biodiversity enhancement and natural resource conservation from a mutual perspective of benefits. Grazed forest techniques are used in areas partially or completely forested which are grazed by livestock.

Alley cropping is a technique that uses the planting of rows of trees and/or shrubs to create alleys within which crops are produced. This technique increases economic diversity, reduces wind and water erosion, and improves pollinators and wildlife.

Agroforestry increases the absorptive capacity of soil and reduces evapotranspiration. The cover from trees and soil can also have direct benefits, such as reducing soil temperature for crops planted underneath and reducing runoff velocity and soil erosion caused by heavy rainfall [33].

The production of ecosystem services, including provisioning services (food, fiber, fuel), improves with a CSA approach.

3. Results

3.1. Recommendations to Scaling-Up CSA Approach and Practices

Scaling up is a non-linear process that usually takes a long time and involves combining generalized and context-specific approaches. Scaling up focuses on the order of activities, integrating local and external knowledge, and mainstreaming new processes and principles. Governments, donors, NGOs, the private sector, policymakers, and other entities play various roles in pilots, projects, programs, guidelines, program modifications, and policy shifts, creating a complex web of activities and influence. Successfully scaling up CSA requires appropriate practices, technologies, and models in favorable enabling environments, including supportive institutional arrangements, policies, and financial investments at all levels. CSA practitioners should be aware of potential opportunities and bottlenecks to scaling up, such as market and policy drivers. The provided literature reports the role of each key stakeholder in scaling up the CSA approach [34].

3.2. The Role of the Public Sector

Proper public sector engagement plays a key role in mediating the challenges of implementation for CSA. Such participation will be most beneficial through climate action/education and investment.

Public governments have the responsibility to protect the environment and pass comprehensive legislation that works to achieve Paris Agreement goals. Governments must produce policy in line with these ideals while simultaneously sampling and producing data to understand, among others, Mitigation and Adaptation (M&A) development capacity in area-specific regions.

Legislation is a key element for the realization of SDGs and the Paris Agreement, heavily influencing implementation for CSAs. The FAO’s study “Agriculture and climate change Law and governance in support of climate-smart agriculture and international climate change goals” [35] highlighted three roles in which legislation is of prime importance:

• Creating binding frameworks: legislation is required to translate commitments into nationally enforceable targets and plans for the government.
• Creating institutions: well-designed institutional frameworks are key for fulfilling mitigation and adaptation policy goals and laws that support climate change initiatives.
• Empowering people: legislation should empower people/rights holders and hold those responsible for its implementation accountable, and information and participation should reinforce citizens awareness and action.

Financial backing is a key element of scaling up. It is imperative that projects receive secure, long-term funding from several agency forms, with funding from national governments as a part of that equation.

3.3. Private Sector Engagement

The private sector is a necessary stakeholder in seeing through the conceptualization and implementation of CSA projects. Engaging the private sector actors at the initial design stage of projects ensures that all parties involved understand the challenges, opportunities, and priorities for the region. Such involvement smoothens the adoption and uptake process [36].

The collaboration between local communities and private actors is crucial for the development and implementation of CSA projects. However, it is vital to ensure that the private sector is being held accountable throughout this process. If CSA projects are to establish legitimacy, it is crucial that the private sector is represented by ethical companies that are dedicated to reducing their emissions and that respect the humanity of farming and farm work.

3.4. Role of Civil Society Organizations (CSOs)

In each successfully implemented CSA project, CSOs play a pivotal role in their engagement with and knowledge of local communities. CSOs are the local network of knowers: farmers, community workers, activists, and families. CSOs, like NGOs, farmer organizations, community support organizations, religious institutions, and women’s groups can each contribute to providing extension services, supporting the community, and advocating for CSA policies. CSOs may also provide social and community care, mental health services, and women’s finance activity, each of which is a critical player in ensuring a just food system.

3.5. Women and Youth Involvement

In agriculture women statistically have less access to productive capital necessary to thrive in the agricultural sector. These include financial capital, advisory services, land ownership rights, worker protection, and resources. Moreover, women are more likely to face barriers to entry, due to their positioning in society as mothers, homemakers, and caretakers. As such, CSA must have a gender-responsive approach that meets the needs, priorities, and realities of men and women to be recognized and addressed in the design and application of CSA so that both can equally benefit [37]. Furthermore, CSA implementation must focus on women’s empowerment so that men and women can not only equally benefit but also equally, equitably, and justly participate, engage in, and access knowledge, training, resources, markets, systems, and compensation.

It is critical that these criteria are established not only for social justice purposes but also for productivity benefits. Women are key producers in the global agricultural economy, responsible for 43% of the agricultural workforce [38]. However, due to gender-based discrimination, women are increasingly food-insecure, facing malnutrition and nutrient deficiencies at rates higher than men. Similarly, 600 million youth live in rural areas but suffer constraints to land, natural resources, finance, technology, education, and knowledge, making it increasingly difficult for young people to contribute to the rural economy. Such social identities must be taken into consideration when implementing CSAs.

4. Discussion

The findings presented in this review underscore the interconnected nature of agrifood systems and the essential role of CSA in fostering sustainable and resilient food systems. CSA emerges as a holistic approach that aligns with the SDGs and the Paris Agreement, aiming to simultaneously boost productivity, enhance resilience to climate change, and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. By examining global agricultural practices, fisheries, aquaculture, and forestry, this study highlights the need for an integrated approach to address the various vulnerabilities these sectors face, particularly in response to climate-related risks.

Such analysis reveals the importance of context-specific strategies tailored to local socioeconomic and environmental conditions, an approach central to CSA. The evidence suggests that sustainable practices, such as crop diversification, precision agriculture, and water management, contribute significantly to ecosystem resilience and productivity. Additionally, innovations in digital technology, including remote sensing and AI, offer valuable tools for monitoring and managing resources more efficiently, thereby enhancing adaptation and mitigation efforts.

This review also emphasizes the critical role of land management in maintaining productivity and environmental health. The reduction in agricultural land area and the decline in forest cover worldwide present challenges that CSA practices, such as no-till agriculture, agroforestry, and regenerative practices, aim to address by promoting soil health, biodiversity, and carbon sequestration.

Future research should further explore the socioeconomic impacts of CSA adoption, particularly in water-scarce and climate-sensitive regions. There is also a need for policy frameworks that support farmers’ access to resources, training, and financial instruments, facilitating CSA implementation at scale. Overall, a global commitment to CSA-informed policies and practices is essential for advancing food security and environmental sustainability.

Climate-smart agriculture is a crucial strategy for tackling the crisis of climate change and safeguarding food security. For decision makers, adopting CSA principles and aligning them with the SDGs can drive systemic changes to ensure food security globally. By prioritizing investment in research and development, capacity building, farmers’ education, and equitable policy reforms encouraging public–private partnerships, decision makers can play a transformative role in building a more strong, sustainable, and resilient global food system.

OECD countries have the resources to lead innovation in agriculture. By funding research on drought-resistant crops and more efficient agricultural technologies, they can develop solutions that work in challenging climates. For example, Western nations could provide crop failure insurance or low-interest loans, making it easier for farmers to invest in better tools such as irrigation systems or fertilizers. Education is also a crucial aspect. Teaching and training farmers how to adopt sustainable practices, such as crop rotation or agroforestry, can make a significant difference. Central governments can support these training programs and ensure that knowledge reaches the people who need it most. Global trade policies sometimes make it difficult for farmers in poorer countries to sell their products at fair prices. By reforming these policies, Competent Authorities of several nations can create a level playing field, supporting fair trade initiatives when farmers use sustainable practices. Governments, businesses, and non-profit organizations can join forces to make climate-smart agriculture more widespread. For instance, a tech company could provide affordable apps to help farmers monitor weather patterns, while central governments could subsidize the cost of these tools. OECD nations could help build resilient and less vulnerable food systems. Diversifying crops, for example, can prevent a single disaster from destroying an entire food source.